Technology Definitions
Chinese name: English name of the active volcanoes: active volcano definition: still in eruption or eruption of the current has not yet, but activity is expected to be of volcanic eruptions. Their subjects: Geography (1 subject); geomorphology (2 subjects)
Active volcano (active volcano): eruption and is expected to be re-eruption of the volcano. Those dormant volcano, but even the live eruption is not imminent, but again in the future may also be known as the volcanic eruption of an active volcano. The last eruption whose very long ago, and proved in the foreseeable future volcanic eruption does not occur, or the extinct volcano called off. In general, the only active volcano eruption will occur.
Extinct and active volcanoes
Definition of the development of an active volcano
The criteria to judge a volcano’s “dead” or “live”, and so far does not have a strict and scientific standards. Active volcano
Experience will have had the history or tradition or history of the eruption of volcanic eruption recorded as active volcanoes, but these are 534 volcanoes in the world. However, history or history of each country and region can be very different, some only three or four years, while others are up to three or four years or longer. In those hermit deep in the remote areas, even the active volcano eruption in modern times, it may not be known or no history. For example, 40km west of the Golden Dragon China Jingyu Volcano, in the back some 1600 years ago, an explosive eruption occurred, but so far found no historical record. Obviously, based on historical or historical records of the definition of an active volcano is far from complete and not realistic. So some volcanologists active volcano eruption intervals based on the large and out of the last volcanic eruption time statistics, to propose a certain time constraints, and improved the definition of active volcanoes, namely those in the past 10,000 years, 5,000 years or once in 2000 to a volcanic eruption, known as the active volcano. What is the use of 10,000, the 5000 or 2000, will allow for different countries and different regions of the specific circumstances. Improved definition of the active volcano, still allowing for exceptions, and requires active volcano for a specific evaluation, to provide the existence of underground volcanic activity of the magma chamber system of evidence.
Live and death is relatively
But the volcano’s “dead” or “live” is still relative. Some 10,000 years or more in a long time there has not been an eruption since the “dead” volcano, also may be due to deep tectonic or magmatic activity led to revived the eruption. For example, Wudalianchi Volcano Group in China, most of the volcanic eruption in 100 000 years ago, but which laoheishan volcanoes and forest fires are volcanic eruption in the year 1719-1721 in the formation. Thus, in the volcano below, the existence of the magma system magmatic activity system, a judge on a volcano “dead” or “live” key, how to know the existence of volcanic activity below the magma system? Generally the phenomenon of initial judgments based on the following: (1) there is an active volcano area hydrothermal activity or jet phenomenon; (2) a small volcanic center within the microseismic activity was significantly higher than the peripheral areas; (3) volcanic area where some surface deformation can be observed. The above phenomena are due to volcanic magma systems following specific activities will have to be laid in the volcanic zone Zhang Qi earthquake – the terrain change observation network, and many other geophysical physical, geochemical methods for exploration. This is when the volcano has been identified as dangerous should be carried out after the volcano monitoring and detection of the fundamental.
The concept of an active volcano
According to the above, we can get the general concept of active volcanoes: volcanic eruptions that
That is an eruption or the historical period and had nearly 10,000 years as an active volcano erupting volcano. When the existence of volcanic activity below the magma system or magma chamber, this volcanic eruption was considered dangerous, should be placed in the modern volcano monitoring systems. Volcanic formation involves a series of physical and chemical processes. Crust and upper mantle rocks in a certain temperature and pressure conditions, produced with partial melting of rock separation, melt migrates upward through the pores or cracks, and the gradual accumulation in certain parts of the formation of magma chambers. With the continuous supply of magma, the magma excess pressure in the magma chamber increases. When the case cover to continue the strength enough to prevent upward movement of magma, magma rising to the surface through the weak zone. The way up the volatiles dissolved in magma gradually dissolved to form a bubble, when the volume fraction of bubbles occupy more than 75%, the detention of the bubbles in the liquid rapidly released, resulting in explosive eruptions, gas fell after the release of magma viscosity low flow into turbulent nature. Should the number of low viscosity magma or less volatile, it is only quiet spillway. From partial melting of the eruption process of a series of physical and chemical differences between various forms of volcanic activity.
Eruption
Outline
Volcano erupted to the surface before the process summarized in three stages: the initial rise of magma formation and stage of stage of magma chamber magma to the surface and leave the stage.
Formation and the initial stages of magma rising
Magmatism must have two processes: partial melting and melt separation and parent rock. In fact these two processes likely independent of each other, the separation of melt and rock begin to melt when possible there will be a. Partial melting of the liquid (ie, magmatic) and solid (crystal) coexistence state, temperature, pressure reduction and lower solidus partial melting can be generated. When the partial melting of the mantle plume of material with time, will produce in the flow of liquid and solid separation, resulting in the movement of liquids and even gathering, known as segregation.
Stage of magma chamber
Magma chamber is filling with magma beneath the volcanic region of the crust or upper mantle rocks relatively enriched media where magma. Generally regarded as a similar reservoir rock pores (or cracks) in the high-temperature fluids, generally considered within the mantle plume, magma only 5% of the total volume of -30%. From the local perspective, can be viewed as a collection of internal relative flow of liquid. Magma from the magma melt, volatiles, and the crystal form mixture.
Magma to the surface from the stage
Magma from the magma source region until the rise near the surface of the channel, and the excess pressure in magma chambers, channels and through the formation and crystallization of magma rising and degassing processes. Local shell tensile or tensile – shear stress is greater than the local rock failure strength, they may form sheets or sheets – shear fractures, should the mutual connectivity of these fractures, it can serve as a channel of magma eruption. [1]
Edit this paragraph eruption conditions
Volcanic eruption
Can the formation of a local volcano is mainly the availability of the following conditions: 1. The formation of some melt must be higher to heat (its outer boundary conditions accumulated or generated), or uplift decompression process, or dehydration and reduce the solid phase line; 2. magmatic enrichment in the crust, or magma chambers formed by the position and the depth of neutral buoyancy surface, while the neutral buoyancy depth and surface discontinuities and crustal rheology of the; 3. magma pocket physical and chemical processes, mainly crystalline, volatile and fluid in the sub-quota and the interaction of magma eruption play to promote or inhibit. The existence of crustal magma chambers play interception, alteration mantle magma rose to the role. It is also the formation of explosive volcanic eruption of important conditions. 4. The existence of magma chamber magma could promote the formation of channels, while the tectonic stress field produced by lead is the main reason for the formation of magma channel. 5. Magma rising from magma chambers under pressure after a double driving gradient and buoyancy. [1]
Edit this paragraph type eruption
Outline
Looking at the world type of volcanic eruption, its determinants First magma composition, volatile content, temperature and viscosity of volcanic eruption
Such as the basaltic magma with low SiO2 composition, with relatively little volatile, high temperature, low viscosity, so magma mobility, volcanic eruptions are relatively quiet, mostly magma eruption, the lava can form large terraces and shield volcanoes; rhyolitic and andesitic magma rich in SiO2 and volatile, the low temperature viscosity big, poor mobility, so violent volcanic eruptions, huge explosions, a large number of volcanic ash, volcanic bombs ejected, often forming large pyroclastic cone, accompanied by pyroclastic flows and the phenomenon of light-emitting clouds, often causing disastrous. The second determining factor is the increase in channel characteristics of underground magma, if the magma in the magma chamber along the long fault line emission surface, which form a fissure eruption; If formed along the two faults cross-channel tube-like upwelling, in under the pressure of magma, the center will produce violent eruptions. The third determining factor is the tectonic setting of magma ejected, to see on land or underwater; is a ridge or plate; or in island arc collision zone, etc.. Volcano tectonic environment in which different types of volcanic eruptions are also very different characteristics.
Pan-flow eruption of basalt
This eruption such as India’s Deccan Plateau, North America’s Columbia Plateau. They are the direction of magma along a major fault (fracture) or increased fracture group, erupted to the surface, some long, narrow channel from the full on spray; some volcanic eruption was a zigzag arrangement, respectively, but is connected to a wall down shaped channel, so called “crack eruption.” Basalt eruption in the main flow direction nearly parallel to the thickness and composition more stable, production-like flat to lava is more common, often forming lava plateau. Because of the great basalt flows, lava ejected large, rare outbreak phase, similar in terrain, flat areas are flooded everywhere overspill of wide distribution, so called “pan-flow basalt eruption.” 1783 Iceland’s Laki volcanic eruption, 25km from long fissures in the lava and ejected about 12km3 3km3 spit of volcanic debris objects, covering an area of 565km2. William Yu Arizona valley, from the 120m-wide crack in the one-time outflow of lava, forming 14 × 22km2 the plateau, the thickness of up to 240m. China’s Guizhou, Yunnan, Sichuan, Permian basalt (260000km2) and Hebei Hannuoba (1700km2) are also pan-flow basalt eruption.
Hawaiian eruption
Is a hot spot volcanoes, the United States, Hawaii, represented, and there is little explosion, often from the top crater, and Hill, a considerable number of cracks overflow basaltic lava flows, magma viscosity, mobility, performance is relatively quiet overflow, the gas emission can be more or less. As the eruption of magma under higher static pressure and the expansion of the role of the bubble, when it reaches the surface, the formation of lava fountains, lava was escaping gas driven up to 300m or more fountain was gushing mostly basaltic lava and can also be andesitic lava, also a small number of volcanic slag and ash. This type of eruption, lava often repeated overflow, but there are many cracks as the channel, form a relatively flat lava flowing lava dome. For example, in 1924 Jilaweie and 1975 Mauna Loa eruption is a typical Hawaiian-style eruptions. This type of eruption basically no casualties, but the village can be destroyed farmland, causing damage to property.
Stone Boley-type eruption
From the early 20th century Italian. The most typical of Italy’s Stone boli volcano, located in island of Sicily Fengshen, frequent volcanic eruptions, from ancient times to be known as “beacon of the Mediterranean”, the eruption is characterized by more or less regular, moderate-intensity eruption , emitting hot lava, the viscosity Bixiaweiyi type is bigger, with a white vapor cloud. The lava crater mild sclerosis, mainly massive lava from basaltic, andesitic composition of the rock composed of lava flows thick and short, there are a few for the rope-like, every half hour gas from escaping. This volcanic rhythm overflowing with white-hot cinder, lapilli and volcanic bombs, explosions more moderate, many volcanic crater debris would be back once again to be ejected, the other fell to the formation of the volcanic cone slope and roll into the sea. If Stone boli volcano (Italy), Palikuting volcano (Mexico), Vesuvius (Italy), Ava Chin volcanoes, volcanic grams remain Qi Fu (the former Soviet Union), has Stone Boley-type eruption characteristics.
Vulcano-type eruption
Vulcano Island in the Mediterranean near Sicily. This type of eruption than the Stone Boley style lava more viscous, was like lava, eruptions are more violent. When not erupting volcano on the consolidation of thick shell, the shell of gas in the consolidation under the aggregation, so that the upper part of the lava column gas saturation. When the pressure increases, the occurrence of violent explosions, sometimes enough to destroy part of the volcanic cone, so that obstructions were blasted, some debris and lava formed a “crust-like volcanic bombs” and the slag is ejected together, accompanied with amount of volcanic ash, “cauliflower-like” eruption cloud. When the crater of “obstructions” are after the emission of lava flows from the volcano have or volcanic cone cracks in the side edge of the emission.
Pelee eruption
Name originated in the West Indies, Martinique pelee volcanic eruption of 1902, when the destroyed city of Saint-Pierre, the death toll over 30,000. Such eruptions produce high-viscosity magma, the outbreak of especially strong, the most obvious feature is to produce hot cloud of ash, which is a high-temperature gas, full of hot volcanic ash particles as emulsion activity, density, When it moves down along the slope, enough to produce the same effect as the hurricane. In pelee eruption, the upward escape of volcanic gases is often blocked the mouth of the lava, the pressure increases when the explosion occurred as the level emitted from the bottle under the direction of the burst of wind. High ash content of the lava was driven out of gas outflow, but apart from the fire out of thick lava mouth, other parts of the phenomenon is no outflow of lava. The history of the volcanic eruption occurred pelee more: 1835 Forsyth Aquinas, 1883, Krakatau, 1902 Montsoufriere, 1912 Katmai, 1951 Lamington volcano ,1955-1956 Do Azmi Yang, 1968 and the 1982 Mayon Volcano eruption el chichon this type are considered.
Plinian
Magma viscosity, the outbreak of intense volcanic detritus usually more than 90%, of which rock debris -25%, 10%, jet to rhyolitic and trachytic pumice, volcanic ash-based, distributed over wide, with small amount of lava flows or ash flows. Since the outbreak of a large number of strong and magma material thrown out, often form a cone roof collapsed caldera. This eruption often are: Clear Channel volcano – magma bubble – burst violently rocks and volcanic ash floating – channel wall of volcanic stone fell and blocked access, the role of such repeated to form a complex volcanic edifice. Mount Vesuvius erupted in 79 AD is a typical Plinian, with the eruption of large-scale landing pumice, volcanic cinder and ash. Java volcano emitted to land downwind from the crater 13km of Pompeii, for an average of 7m thick pumice layer buried. Japan between 1783 volcanic activity in the shallow pumice layer is also down, while a large eruption in the volcanic debris flow and lava flow ejected. May 18, 1980 the United States is Pliny St. Helens eruption style, when the outbreak of the formation of hydrothermal – magmatic explosion.
Ultra-vulcano-type eruption
And water vapor, like the outbreak, almost no explosive eruption of magma material. Some said the super-volcano (Japan bandai-san)-type outbreak. As the only eruptions no lava eruption, so eruptions eruption in the cooling mode, and occasionally emitting hot state. Characterized by a large number of basement volcanic debris, sometimes up to 75% -100%. Emit super-vulcano-type changes in the physical volume of the size of large rocks to the volcanic ash from the giant form both. Debris are usually angular and sharp edges and corners like no volcanic bombs and slag.
Su Tese eruption
1963-1967, the southern coastal waters of Iceland’s volcanic eruption in a non-stop Su Tese volcanic island. Volcanic activity during the first half, in a shallow submarine volcano in eruption characterized by recurrent outbreaks, when basaltic magma and seawater exposure Shiyou exploded, producing a large number of fine material (volcanic ash), that the magma – water vapor , water vapor – the type of magma erupted and the land of Stone Boley different type eruption. The classification above is not the most perfect, the actual investigation revealed that even the same type of eruption may occur in different types of volcanism, while with a volcano in its own activities in the eruption may produce different types, even sometimes in the same eruption also there are different forms of volcanic activity. As to type and named Stone Stone Boley Boley volcano-type eruption occurred a few Vulcano; named Hawaiian eruption of Kilauea and Mauna Loa, are observed at different times from the Stone Boley type to the super-vulcano-type eruption.
Edit this paragraph eruption Index
Volcanic eruption is most at risk of explosive eruption, the biggest disaster was the eruption column, which volcanic eruption
Accustomed to the total mass of ejecta and eruption column height to measure, often called volcanic eruptions index VEI (Volcanic Explosivity Index). Outbreak of the index and the volcanic eruption VEI energy E (erg) the relationship between the (S De la Cruz-Reyna, 1996) as: lg E = 0.78 MVEI + 21.02 last eruption of VEI = 7 is in the 1815 Tambora, erupted like this ( VEI = 7) approximately one thousand years. Changbai Mountain in 1199 eruption, ash 2-5 cm in Hokkaido, Japan, estimated eruption volume 120km3, VEI = 7, equivalent to a 9.8 earthquake. The last eruption of VEI = 6 is the June 1991 eruption Pena Figure stroke, DVI volcanic dust screen index 1000. VEI = 6 and then the last eruption was in 1883, Krakatoa, erupted roughly like this once in a century. VEI = 5, such as Vesuvius eruption in 79 AD eruption (VEI = 5) 10 – three years once. VEI = 4 eruptions clouds Xianyueshan 1991 eruption (VEI = 4) 3-5 years time. 1668-1702 eruption of Changbai Mountain 140 km outside the volcanic ash 3-5 cm, estimated eruption volume 1km3, strength of VEI = 4 ~ 5, equivalent to a 8.5 earthquake. VEI = 3 eruptions such as the 1985 eruption of Ruiz. Heilongjiang under debris volume / total eruption volume, estimated laoheishan outbreak index VEI = 4 Huoshaoshan VEI = 3 laoheishan eruption column height of 1-2 km, the intensity VEI = 2, the energy equivalent to a 7 earthquake. VEI = 2, such as the 1991 eruption of Mount Unzen eruption. VEI = 1 eruption such as the 1996 Stromboli eruption. VEI described the eruption volume km3 eruption column height km erg of energy equivalent to 1 micro 10-5-10-3 0.1-1 earthquake magnitude 6.3 1021 6.6 2 * 3.8 * 1022 Small 0.001-0.01 1-5 0.01-0.1 7.2 3 3 – 1023 7.7 4 15 6.3 * Large 0.1-1 10-25 8.2 5 1.4 * 1024 * 1024 Great 1-1025-45 8.3 8.7 5.0 * 6 large 10-10030-50 tremendous 100-1000 1025 9.3 7 35 – 1000 45-55 1.8*1027 10.3″ onmouseout=”this.style.backgroundColor=’#fff’”>1026 9.8 55 3.0 * 8 large> 100045-55 10.3 1.8 * 1027
The main active volcanoes
Current scientific findings suggest that in many planets and satellites are volcanic. In the solar system now have conclusive evidence that there is still volcanic activity of Earth and Jupiter’s satellite Aiou (Io). Volcanic activity on Earth about 50 times each year. However, most of them are in the seabed and inaccessible mountains, and therefore impact on the human sense of the little volcanic activity. Earth 16 was selected as the “Decade Volcano” The main volcano observation plan are: the Russian Kamchatka Peninsula, the Asian baby Cinschi – 科里亚斯基 volcanic group (Avachinsk-Koryaksky) Mexico’s Colima volcano in Italy Colombia’s Galeras volcano Mt Etna Hawaii’s Mauna Loa volcano Mount Merapi in Indonesia Democratic Republic of Congo Mount Nyiragongo Mount Rainier in Washington’s cherry Kagoshima Prefecture, Japan volcanic island volcano in Guatemala 圣塔马利亚 / Sandia ancient volcanoes (Santamaria / Santiaguito) Greece Santorini volcano in the Philippines Taal volcano (Taal) Canary Islands, Spain Ted peak (Teide Peak) Papua New Guinea The Ural Wang volcano (Ulawun) Japan’s Unzen volcano Vesuvius, Italy

160 strategic bombers, also known as: Tupolev plans -160 (Tupolev Tu-160) is a Russian variable-geometry heavy supersonic strategic bomber wing. NATO for its code-named “Blackjack” (Blackjack). Russian Air Force called the “White Swan” (White Swan). December 18, 1981 the first test flight. A total of actual production from the former Soviet Union, 35, about 16 in the Russian Air Force.

History
Design
Figure -160 by Tupolev Design Bureau 70 years in the 20th century, began to design the variable sweep wing supersonic strategic heavy bombers, aircraft is estimated at 70 early in the Figure-22M bombers, developed after the first test flight. TU-160’s development was carried out by tender to participate in the tender are Tupolev Design Bureau, Mia and the Sukhoi Design Bureau Design Bureau. Tupolev Design Bureau’s proposal is in the TU-144 supersonic passenger plane on the basis of development; Mia Design Bureau of the proposed design called the M-18 program; Sulei Yi Design Bureau’s proposal is in the T- 4 aircraft based on the improved design bombers. [1] Russian Figure -160 “Blackjack” strategic bombers born
At that time the Air Force that the M-18 design is better, but considering the large bombers Tupolev Design Bureau, the design has the experience and capacity, so I finally decided to also allow Tupolev Design Bureau in the M-18 program is based the development of TU-160 strategic bombers, mass production factory for the Kazan aircraft factory. Prototype December 19, 1981 flight, in May 1987 entered the military service, be operational in 1988, alternative Mia -4 and -95 aircraft and the implementation of the strategic task graph. It is believed to produce 40 in 1992 after a temporary shutdown. Motorostroitel in Samarra in 1994, the company shut down the engine production line. Since then, the company is only responsible for this engine overhaul and key manufacturing technology. As Figure -160 aircraft training volume small, so the company only 28 engine maintenance. [1]
Restart the production line
In 2006, the Russian air force launched a plan -160 aircraft overhaul and upgrade project to ensure that entered service in 2020-2025 before the PAK to keep 16 combat capability of supersonic bombers. Russian Figure -160 “Blackjack” strategic bombers since 2007, Russia resumed its bomber fleet of cruise flight, which made the engine somewhat worn. [1]
System Structure
Layout
Figure -160 strategic bombers using variable-geometry wing, low wing, using the blended wing body technology. The swept wing fixed leading edge section of a larger, showing arc, until the nose on both sides of the cockpit. Movable section of the sweep degree manual selection, ranging from 20 ° to 65 °, when the full swept wing, the trailing edge flaps on both sides of the inner section up erect, like a pair of wing blade, wing available There are all fixed wing segment leading edge flap, trailing edge flaps are longer and the double-slit under the partial aileron plug-in. All-action swept vertical tail and horizontal tail is mounted on the junction of dorsal fin, the higher position. Hirao above the tail section is also full-motion style. Horizontal tail and vertical tail at the junction of a tapered rear fairing, built-in drag parachute. Large dorsal fin. Blended wing body structure made to reduce the reflected wave radar design modification. Body structure, heavy use of titanium torsion box.
Structure
Wing and fuselage connecting structure before and after each 10 meters long bomb a tank. Retractable wheeled landing gear before the three-point backward before the landing gear put away, the main landing gear as the car type, there are three pairs of wheels on each side. Pillars of the main landing gear back away, while the middle wheel trolley along the axis of a pair of wheel rotation 90 °, the last wheel of the car and put away the pillar placed in the chamber in parallel. A small tail wheel, tail with a drag parachute. However the machine needs to land slide distance or 3050 meters. Cockpit crew members before and after the tie, each with separate ejection seat. Each side has a window of the cockpit can be turned back inward to the ground ventilation. Crew into the cabin before the landing gear compartment. System equipment NK321 engine aircraft using fly-by-system, four crew members were deputy pilot, navigator and weapons systems manipulator. Tied around the seat, have a separate 0-0 ejection seat (can be 0 height, 0 cases, the success rate of ejection). Pilots flying joystick control, and many other large aircraft are used steering wheel. Figure -160 powered by four NK-321 turbofan engine, a single maximum thrust 137.3 kN, 226.5 kN thrust afterburning. Inlet with a vertical inlet regulating device. The machine contains the largest amount of 160,000 kg of fuel. Telescopic refueling equipment installed in the head at the top. Figure -160 way to combat high-altitude subsonic cruise, low-altitude high subsonic or supersonic penetration based. At high altitude to launch attacks outside of the circle with the ability to fire cruise missiles (ALCM); air defense suppression attacks can be launched short-range missiles, similar to the United States SRAM); machine can also be low-altitude penetration, with a nuclear bomb or missile attack important targets. Of course, has a capacity of conventional bombing, but limited to the development of weapons systems as the United States overall, conventional bombing capability appears inadequate. Airborne equipment, including dielectric nose cone navigation / attack radar, reportedly has terrain following capacity; tail with early warning radar, astronomy, and inertial navigation systems, navigation coordinates orientation instrument; machine before the fuselage lower front fairing is a flat transparent cover, equipped with weapons aimed at the optical cameras, as well as active and passive electronic countermeasures equipment. Tail with early warning radar. Addition, this machine is also equipped with various active and passive electronic warfare equipment. Figure -160 abolishing the tail of self-defense cannon. Free-fall bomb bay can carry weapons, short range attack missiles or cruise missiles. Machine with two 12.80 m long tank weapons, arms rotating cabin launchers can each take six Kh55MS turbofan power cruise missiles (NATO code-named AS-15 “Kent” Kent). Kh55MS called Russia’s “Tomahawk”, and the U.S. ALCM approximate range of 3,000 kilometers, with 200,000 tons to the power of nuclear warheads. The rear cabin two rotary launcher can attack with 24 Kh15P short-range missile with a range of 200 km and can take 250 kg conventional warhead. Or two modules were mounted 40 tons of general-purpose bombs. Because of its structure with the same period, the United States B-1 bomber is very similar, it is called red B-1. Figure -160 than the B-1 large and heavy combat mode and B-1 is similar, but fighting is not dominant, mainly in terms of electronic technology and stealth than the B-1 difference.
Derived models
Figure -160 plans are limited to the various models on paper design, not yet begun production system, including: Figure-160S: This is designed as a pre-production test aircraft. Figure-160V: liquid hydrogen to fuel aircraft, almost the same with the Tu-155. Figure -160 NK-74: NK-74 engines to use long-distance flight models. Figure-160M: This type lengthened fuselage to carry long-range speeds above Mach 5, Kh-90 (3M25 Meteorite-A) “meteorite” missile. Figure-160P (Tu-161): long range escort interceptor / fighter. Figure-160PP: electronic warfare aircraft, carrying away from the outer active jamming and electronic countermeasures system (ПП – постановщик помех). Figure-160R: Strategic detection platform. Figure-160SK: commercial aircraft, used to carry and transport, and launch of the “trackers” rocket system dedicated machine. Tu-170: Traditional bomber (to avoid the Strategic Arms Limitation Talks in the “START II Treaty” (SALT-2) limit).
Service history
Former Soviet Union, most of the map -160 deployed in the territory of Ukraine. It is reported that Ukraine will start from the end of 1999 Figure 8 -160 to Russia, for the satisfaction of the debt owed to Russia, the other with 3 Figure 95MC strategic bombers and related ground facilities, as well as 575 cruise missiles. The last two plan -160 arrived in Russia in 2000. Also Russia is also slow production of new map -160 bombers, the first aircraft in service in May 2000. September 18, 2003, in Engels, Saratov region, Russia’s air force base near the crash occurred in a graph -160 serious accident, killing all four crew members. Russia grounded after all the plans -160. Russian Air Force said the cause of the accident was caused by a new engine plane caught fire. Crew in the time of the incident, driving the plane away from the 20,000 people living in villages and huge underground gas storage facilities, to avoid a serious environmental disaster. 2010, Russia has 16 map -160 bombers, and planned to be in service by 2030.
Technical Data
Captain: 54.10 m Height: 13.10 meters wingspan (fully swept): 35.60 m, (start) 55.70 m wing area (all started): 360.00 square meters Empty weight: 118,000 kg maximum fuel capacity: 160,000 kg maximum weapons load: 40,000 kg normal takeoff weight: 267,600 kg Maximum takeoff weight: 275,000 kg maximum landing weight: 155,000 kg maximum level flight speed: 2000 km / hour (12,200 meters above sea level) 1030 km / hour (sea level) cruise speed: M0 .9 (13,700 m) maximum sea level climb rate: 4000 m / min air refueling in Figure -160 Practical ceiling: 15,000 m take off roll distance: 2200 m landing run distance: 1600 m (maximum landing weight) Maximum no aerial refueling flight: 12 300 km Combat radius: 2000 km (M1.5) Overload limit: +2.0 g

Rare is the periodic table of chemical elements in the Lanthanide – Lanthanum (La), cerium (Ce), praseodymium (Pr), neodymium (Nd), Promethium (Pm), samarium (Sm), europium (Eu), gadolinium (Gd ), terbium (Tb), dysprosium (Dy), holmium (Ho), erbium (Er), thulium (Tm), ytterbium (Yb), lutetium (Lu), as well as the 15 lanthanide elements in two closely related elements – scandium (Sc) and yttrium (Y) a total of 17 elements, known as the REE (Rare Earth). Referred to as Rare Earth (RE or R).

Outline
Korea is a major user of rare earth, rare-earth current number of China’s exports reached 50,000 tons per year (legal exports), the main application of power as Japan, Europe and North America. At the same time the application of rare earth in China is also active in the current account for 70,000 tons. Rare Earth in China each year the actual volume of minerals in the actual investment of about 15 million tons, a figure no significant change in recent years. However, the number of rare earth still can not meet the current global automotive, electronics and other industries dosage requirements. Particularly rare earth in polishing, catalytic, magnetic materials such growth is also very prominent. However, the application of rare-earth there are uneven, some elements, such as: Sm, Gd, Ho, Er and so on have not been fully applied and a large number of abandoned, homeless.

Distribution of rare earth resources in China
China is the world’s rare earth resources in the most rich countries, known as “Earth Kingdom”, the total reserves of about 90 million tons reserves TR2O3. China’s mines have proven reserves of 60 multiple, distributed in 16 provinces (regions) to the most Ganzhou, production of rare earth reserves account for more than 50% of the country, Hubei, Guizhou, Jiangxi, Guangdong and other provinces followed. China is not only large reserves of rare earth minerals, and variety, good quality and unique deposit types, such as metamorphosed sedimentary Bayan Obo in Inner Mongolia – hydrothermal-type niobium – rare earth deposits and Nanling region weathering crust deposits on the tops in a unique position in the world . China’s rare earth minerals and other minerals and more symbiotic, south to heavy rare earth-based, on the north by light rare earth-based.

Damage to the environment of rare earth mining
Example 1: Zou Tao Village Total land of 500 acres, 20 acres of rare-earth ore mining used to be requisitioned, contaminated more than 80 acres of farmland. According to reports, Zou Tao past the old mining village of rare earth mining method: dig holes in the hills, rare earth and clay excavated together with oxalic acid reacts with the clay extracted primary RE. As a result, the soil on the hills almost hollowed out, resulting in serious soil erosion and destruction of surface vegetation. Oxalic acid polluted water, near the village of Zou Tao and rock reservoirs have been severely damaged, and this assumes the supply of drinking water Ning soldiers and military airport near the town of 45 heavy irrigation reservoir, is now only less than one meter The pond was. Drinking water to local villagers say they “smell the water,” Environmental testing station to get Xingning test, we found that PH, nitrite, iron, lead and excessive number of projects simply can not drink, the villagers only Citation drink from a distance under the mountain spring. Example 2: large-scale illegal exploitation of rare earth ore by ammonium nitrate, sulfuric acid and other highly toxic chemical medicine washed mine waste water without any treatment, a large number of discharged directly into rivers. From all mining points to see a large number of machines in a few hills full capacity, large areas of the Castle Peak into the Loess Plateau, large trees have been felled, the foot washing pool chemicals such as ammonium sulfate (I heard there are other harmful chemicals) in a kilometer away the smell can be smelled. Large number of highly toxic waste water directly discharged into the river through the rice fields and into the west branch river. Wherever water, crops and all died, streams of death in fish and shrimp are also sent waves of stench. In addition, the arrival times of heavy rain, the mountains a lot of bare soil was washed down the mountain, causing a lot of farmland was flooded.

Classification of rare earth
1) light rare earth (also known as cerium group): lanthanum, cerium, praseodymium, neodymium, promethium, samarium, europium, gadolinium. 2) heavy rare earth (or Y group): terbium, dysprosium, holmium, erbium, thulium, ytterbium, lutetium, scandium, yttrium. Cerium group and Y group of the other, because the minerals are separated by the rare earth mixture, often more than the proportion of cerium or yttrium named. Rare earth metals (rare earth metals), also known as rare earth elements, is the periodic table Ⅲ B family of scandium, yttrium, lanthanum series of 17 elements of the general, common R or RE said. Their names and chemical symbols are scandium (Sc), yttrium (Y), lanthanum (La), cerium (Ce), praseodymium (Pr), neodymium (Nd), Promethium (Pm), samarium (Sm), europium (Eu ), gadolinium (Gd), terbium (Tb), dysprosium (Dy), holmium (Ho), erbium (Er), thulium (Tm), ytterbium (Yb), lutetium (Lu). Their atomic number is 21 (Sc), 39 (Y), 57 (La) to 71 (Lu).

17 kinds of rare earth elements in its name and purpose
The term rare earth is the name of the legacy of history. REE is a leaf from the 18th century began to discover, when people often do not dissolve in water, the solid oxide is called soil. The general state of rare earth oxides are separated out, and very rare, and thus have named Earth. Usually lanthanum, cerium, praseodymium, neodymium, promethium, samarium, europium or cerium rare earth group known as the light rare earth; to gadolinium, terbium, dysprosium, holmium, erbium, thulium, ytterbium, lutetium yttrium group known as the heavy rare earth or yttrium rare earth. Also some physical and chemical properties of rare earth based similarities and differences, in addition to outside Sc (scandium, some will be classified as scattered elements), divided into three groups, namely, light rare earth group, lanthanum, cerium, praseodymium, neodymium, Promethium; in the rare earth group Sm, Eu, Gd, Tb, Dy; heavy rare earth group, holmium, erbium, thulium, ytterbium, lutetium, yttrium. The discovery of these rare earth elements, from the 1794 Finn Gadolin (J. Gadolin) isolated from Y to 1947 American Mariinsky (JAMarinsky) so obtained Promethium, which lasted 150 years. Most of Europe, some of the rare earth elements is mineralogist, chemist and metallurgist, etc. found in the system of admission. Promethium is an American Mariinsky, Gelandening (LEGlendenin) and Colher (CDCoryell) using ion exchange separation of rare earth elements in uranium fission products obtained. Over the past that does not exist in nature, Promethium, until 1965, a phosphate plant in Finland discovered in dealing with apatite trace Promethium.
Lanthanum (La)
“La” is the element named in 1839, when a man named “Mossad,” the Swede found that the soil contains other elements cerium, he borrowed the Greek “hidden” in the name of this element is ” La. ” Lanthanum is widely used, if applied to piezoelectric materials, electric materials, thermoelectric materials, magnetoresistive materials, luminescent materials (blue powder), hydrogen storage materials, optical glass, laser materials, all kinds of alloy materials. La is also applied to the preparation of a catalyst in many organic chemical products, the light conversion is also used in agricultural films of La, in foreign countries, scientists assigned the role of La on the crop and the “super calcium” reputation.
Cerium (Ce)
“Ce” This element is 克劳普罗斯 by the German, Swedish Wusi Bo Qi Li, Greek Health Younger in 1803 discovered and named to commemorate the 1801 discovery of the asteroid – Ceres. Ce widely used: (1) Ce as a glass additive, can absorb ultraviolet and infrared, has been widely used in automotive glass. Not only UV, can reduce the inside temperature, air-conditioning to save electricity. Since 1997, all Japanese cars by adding cerium oxide glass, automotive glass in 1996 at least 2,000 tons of cerium oxide, the United States about 1000 tons. (2) are now being applied to the cerium in automobile exhaust catalysts, which can effectively prevent a large number of vehicle exhaust into the air in the United States in this area total consumption of rare earth consumption accounts for one-third. (3) sulfide Ce can replace lead, cadmium and other harmful environmental and human metal applied to the pigment in coloring plastics can also be used in coatings, inks and paper industry. Currently leading the French company Rhone-Poulenc. (4) Ce: LiSAF laser system is the United States out of the solid-state laser developed by monitoring the tryptophan concentration can be used to detect biological weapons, but also for medicine. Ce broad range of applications, almost all application areas contain rare earth cerium. Such as polishing powder, hydrogen storage materials, thermoelectric materials, cerium tungsten electrode, ceramic capacitors, piezoelectric ceramics, silicon carbide abrasive cerium, fuel cell materials, fuel catalyst, some of the permanent magnetic materials, all kinds of alloy steel and non-ferrous metals.
Praseodymium (Pr)
About 160 years ago, the Swedes from La Mossad discovered a new element, but it is not a single element, Mossad discovered the nature of this element is very similar to lanthanum, kept it the name “Pr Nd” . “Pr Nd” Greek for “twin” was intended. Then, after about 40 years, that is, the 1885 invention of gas lamp mantles, Austrian Welsbach successfully from “Pr Nd” to isolate the two elements, one named “neodymium”, another name “Pr.” This “twin” was separated, and Pr elements also have their own vast display their talents. Pr is a large amount of rare earth elements, its use of glass, ceramic and magnetic materials. Pr extensive use of: (1) Pr is widely used in building ceramics and household ceramics, mixed with ceramic glaze made of colored glaze, also available separately as underglaze paints, pigments made of light yellow, pure tone, elegant . (2) for the manufacture of permanent magnets. Cheap used instead of pure metal praseodymium neodymium magnet neodymium metal, its oxidation and mechanical performance was improved, can be processed into various shapes of magnets. Widely used in various types of electronic devices and motor. (3) for oil catalytic cracking. Pr Nd enrichment in the form of adding zeolite Y cracking catalyst in the preparation of oil, can improve the catalytic activity, selectivity and stability. China put into industrial use 70 years, consumption continued to grow. (4) can also be used for abrasive polishing Pr. In addition, the use of praseodymium in the optical field more and more widely.
Neodymium (Nd)
With the birth of the elements Pr, Nd elements have emerged, neodymium rare earth elements in the arrival of active areas of the field in the Earth play an important role, and about the rare earth market. ? Neodymium rare earth elements in the field by virtue of its unique position as the market for many years the focus of attention. Neodymium is the largest user of NdFeB permanent magnets. The advent of neodymium iron boron permanent magnets, rare earth high-tech field to inject a new vitality and vigor. NdFeB magnets with high energy product, called contemporary “magnet of the King”, with its excellent performance widely used in electronics, machinery and other industries. The successful development of Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer, indicates that China magnet into the magnetic properties have been world class. Neodymium is also used in non-ferrous materials. Adding magnesium or aluminum alloy in the 1.5 to 2.5% neodymium, can improve the alloy’s high temperature performance, air tightness and corrosion resistance, widely used as aerospace materials. In addition, neodymium-doped yttrium aluminum garnet produce short-wave laser beam, is widely used in industry in the 10mm thickness of thin materials, the following welding and cutting. In the medical, neodymium yttrium aluminum garnet laser instead of scalpel or sterilized for surgery, patient wound. Neodymium is also used for coloring glass and ceramics, and rubber additives. With the development of science and technology, earth science and technology, expansion and extension of neodymium element will have a wider use of space.
Promethium (Pm)
In 1947, the Mariinsky (JAMarinsky), Gelundanning (LEGlendenin) and Collier (CECoryell) of uranium from spent nuclear reactor fuel to separate out of 61 successful elements, with Greek mythology the name of God Prometheus (Prometheus) named Promethium (Promethium). Promethium is man-made radioactive elements produced by nuclear reactors. Promethium main uses: (1) can be used for heat. For the detection and satellite to provide auxiliary vacuum energy. (2) Pm147 emit low energy β-ray, used to make Promethium battery. Missile guidance equipment, and watches as the power supply. Small size of such cells can be used continuously for several years. In addition, Promethium is also used portable X-ray apparatus, preparation of phosphor, and the navigation light in the thickness measurement.
Samarium (Sm)
In 1879, Beuys package Dresser yttrium niobium ore obtained from the “praseodymium neodymium” rare earth elements found in a new and, based on the name of this ore is samarium. Sm light yellow, do samarium cobalt permanent magnet material, samarium cobalt magnet is the first industrial application of rare earth magnets are. This magnet system has SmCo5 system and Sm2Co17 two. Early 70s invented SmCo5 system, later invented the Sm2Co17 system. Now the demand is mainly the latter. Samarium cobalt magnet samarium oxide used in high purity without, from cost considerations, the main use of 95% of the product. In addition, samarium oxide catalyst was also used in ceramic capacitors and respect. In addition, the SM also has a nuclear nature, can be used as nuclear reactor structural materials, materials and control material spacious screen, so that nuclear fission energy can be a huge safety advantage.
Europium (Eu)
In 1901, De Makai (Eugene-Antole Demarcay) from the “Sm” in the discovery of new element, named for the Eu (Europium). This is probably the European (Europe) the term named. Europium oxide is used most of the phosphor. Eu3 + red phosphor activator used, Eu2 + blue phosphor used. Now Y2O2S: Eu3 + is luminescent efficiency, coating stability, cost recovery best phosphor. Together to improve the light efficiency and contrast and other improvements in technology, it is being widely used. Europium oxide is also used in recent years, the new X-ray medical diagnostic system, stimulated emission phosphor. Europium oxide can be used to create colored lenses and optical filters for magnetic bubble storage devices, the control of materials at the atomic reactor, screen spacious and structural materials also can have a go.
Gadolinium (Gd)
In 1880, the Swiss De Marignac (G. de Marignac) to “Sm” separated into two elements, which proved to be a Sorett samarium element, another element by Beuys package Dresser research confirmed 1886, De Marignac to commemorate the discoverer of rare earth elements yttrium pioneer Dutch chemist Gadolin (Gado Linium), will be named the new element gadolinium. Gd in the modern technological innovation will play an important role. Its main purposes are: (1) its water-soluble paramagnetic complex can enhance the human body in medical magnetic resonance (NMR) imaging signal. (2) the sulfur oxide can be used as a special x-ray brightness of the CRT and the matrix mesh screen. (3) gadolinium gallium garnet Gd in magnetic bubble memory for storage is ideal for a single substrate. (4) without Camot cycle limit, can be used as solid-state magnetic refrigeration medium. (5) to control the nuclear chain reaction-level inhibitors, in order to ensure the safety of nuclear reactions. (6), samarium cobalt magnets used additives to ensure that performance does not change with temperature. In addition, gadolinium and lanthanum oxide used together, help to change the glass transition region and improve the thermal stability of glass. Gadolinium oxide can also be used to make capacitors, x-ray intensifying screens. In the world are currently working to develop Gadolinium and its alloys in the application of magnetic refrigeration has been a breakthrough, at room temperature using superconducting magnets, metal or alloy as the cooling medium gadolinium magnetic refrigerators have been around.
Terbium (Tb)
1843 Sweden’s Mossad (Karl G. Mosander) yttrium earth through the study found that terbium element (Terbium). Application of terbium most involved high-tech fields, is technology-intensive, knowledge-intensive cutting-edge projects, but also has significant economic benefits of the project, with attractive prospects. Main application areas: (1) for the three color phosphors in fluorescent green powder activator, such as terbium activated phosphate matrix, terbium-activated silicate matrix, terbium-activated cerium magnesium aluminate matrix, In the excited state were given the green light. (2) magneto-optical storage materials, optical materials in recent years has reached Tb system the size of mass production, with the Tb-Fe amorphous films developed magneto-optical disc for computer storage devices, storage capacity increased by 10 to 15 times. (3) magneto-optical glass, glass containing terbium Faraday rotation is to create the laser technology is widely used in the rotor, isolators and circulators key material. Particularly iron magnetostrictive alloy Tb Dy (TerFenol) Research and Development, is opening up new uses for terbium, Terfenol is the 70’s discovered a new type of material, half of the alloy composition for the terbium and dysprosium, holmium sometimes added, the rest is iron, the alloy by the United States Iowa Armstrong Laboratory developed the first, when the Terfenol placed in a magnetic field, its size changes in magnetic changes than large change can be achieved a number of precision mechanical movement . Tb Dy Fe started mainly for sonar, has been widely used in many fields, from the fuel injection system, liquid valve control, micro positioning to mechanical actuators, institutions and the regulation of aircraft wing Space Telescope regulator fields .
Dysprosium (Dy)
In 1886, the French Beuys package Dresser successfully separated into two elements, holmium, one is still known as the Ho, Ho and the other based from the “hard to get” the meaning of name for the Dy (dysprosium). Dysprosium present in many high-tech fields are playing an increasingly important role. Dysprosium main purposes: (1) Department of NdFeB permanent magnets as the additive, in which magnets to add 2 to 3% of the Dy can improve the coercivity, Dy demand over the past little, but with the increased demand for NdFeB magnets, it becomes necessary to add elements, grade must be around 95 ~ 99.9%, demand is also increasing rapidly. (2) Dy phosphor used as activator, trivalent dysprosium is a promising single tricolor light emitting center ion activation of the material, it is mainly composed of two bands, one for yellow luminescence and the other for the blue light emission, light-emitting materials doped with Dy as a three-color phosphor. (3) Dy is the preparation of large magnetostrictive alloy Tb Dy Fe (Terfenol) alloy metal raw materials necessary, make some of the precision mechanical movement activities can be achieved. (4), dysprosium metal can be used as magneto-optical storage material with high sensitivity recording speed and reading. (5) for the preparation of dysprosium lamp, dysprosium lamp used in the work material is dysprosium iodide, such lamps have high brightness, good color, color temperature, compact, stable arc, has been used in film, print and other lighting. (6) Since the element dysprosium has a large neutron capture cross section features, in the nuclear industry used to determine the neutron energy spectrum, or as neutron absorbers. (7) Dy3Al5O12 also be used as magnetic refrigeration working with magnetic material. With the development of science and technology, dysprosium applications will continue to expand and extend.
Holmium (Ho)
Half of the nineteenth century, due to the discovery of spectroscopy and the periodic table of the publication, together with rare earth elements in the progress of electrochemical separation process, and more to promote the discovery of new rare earth elements. In 1879, Cliff discovered holmium element Swedes and the Swedish capital Stockholm to name names Ho (holmium). 99.9″ onmouseout=”this.style.backgroundColor=’#fff’”>? Holmium application areas still await further development, the amount is not large, recently, Baotou Rare Earth Research Institute of high-temperature high-vacuum distillation technique, developed low levels of non-rare earth impurities in high purity metal holmium Ho / ΣRE> 99.9 %. Ho is mainly used in the present: (1) for metal halide additives, metal halogen lamp is a gas discharge lamp, which is developed on the basis of high-pressure mercury lamp, and its features is in the bulb filled with a variety of different rare earth halides. Currently the main use of the rare earth iodide, the gas discharge line when the issue of a different color of light. In the Ho light material is used in the work of the holmium iodide, in the arc area can get a higher concentration of metal atoms, thus greatly improving the effectiveness of radiation. (2) Holmium yttrium iron can be used as an additive or yttrium aluminum garnet; (3), holmium-doped yttrium aluminum garnet (Ho: YAG) laser can be fired 2μm, human tissue on the 2μm laser absorption rate, almost Hd: YAG high three orders of magnitude. So with the Ho: YAG laser for medical procedures, not only can improve the operation efficiency and accuracy, and thermal damage can be reduced to a smaller area. Ho crystal produced in the free beam to eliminate fat and not produce excessive heat, thereby reducing the right’s Re Sunshang produce healthy tissue, according to reports the U.S. holmium laser treatment of glaucoma Yong, can reduce the Huanzheshoushu the 痛苦. 2μm laser crystals in China has reached international standards, should be vigorously developed to produce the laser crystal. (4) in the magnetostrictive alloy Terfenol-D, you can also add a small amount of holmium, thereby reducing the saturation magnetization of alloy required field. (5) also used the holmium-doped fiber can produce fiber laser, fiber amplifier, optical fiber sensors, etc. in the optical fiber communication optical communication devices rapidly today play a more important role.
Erbium (Er)
In 1843, Sweden’s Mossad found the element erbium (Erbium). Doped optical properties of very prominent, has been an issue of concern: (1) Er3 + in the 1550nm The light emission is of special significance, because the wavelength exactly in the optical fiber communication optical fiber minimum loss, erbium ion (Er3 +) by the wavelength of 980nm , 1480nm optical excitation, the from the ground state 4I15 / 2 transition to high energy state 4I13 / 2, when in high-energy state of Er3 + and then jump back to the ground state emitting 1550nm wavelength of light, the quartz fiber can transmit a variety of different wavelengths of light, However, failure rates of different bare different, 1550nm band of light in quartz optical fiber transmission time decay rate of the lowest (0.15 db / km), almost the limit for the minimum decay rate. Therefore, the Optical Fiber Communication Department for the signal light at 1550nm, the minimum optical loss. Thus, if the appropriate concentration of erbium doped suitable matrix, the role can be based on principles of laser amplifier to compensate for the loss of the communication system, and therefore need to enlarge the wavelength of 1550nm optical signal of the telecommunications network, erbium-doped fiber amplifier is a must small optical devices, the current erbium-doped silica fiber amplifier has been commercialized. According to reports, in order to avoid unwanted absorption of erbium doped fiber tens to hundreds of ppm. The rapid development of optical fiber communication, will open up new fields of application of erbium. (2) other erbium-doped laser crystal and the output of the 1730nm and 1550nm laser with laser eye safety, better atmospheric transmission performance, smoke on the battlefield, strong penetration, good security as well, not easily detected by the enemy, irradiation the contrast of a larger military goal has been made on the military use of the portable eye-safe laser rangefinder. (3) Er3 + added to the glass, the glass can be made of rare earth laser materials, is the maximum output pulse energy, output power solid-state laser materials. (4) Er3 + can be done on the conversion of rare earth ion activated laser material. (5) also can be applied to glasses doped glass, crystal glass, bleaching and coloring.
Thulium (Tm)
1879 Thulium element is found in Sweden, Cliff, and in Scandinavia (Scandinavia) the name of the old name of Thule thulium (Thulium). ?? Thulium is mainly used in the following aspects: (1) Tm for medical X-ray-ray light source, thulium after irradiation in the reactor to produce a within the X-ray emission of the isotopes can be used to create portable blood irradiation apparatus, this apparatus can thulium -169 radiation beam by the role of high school into Tm -170, emit X-ray irradiation of blood and to decrease white blood cells, and it is these white blood cells can cause organ transplant rejection, and thus Early reduction of organ rejection. (2) thulium elements can also be used in clinical diagnosis and treatment of tumors, tumor tissue because of its high affinity for HREE than LREE greater affinity, in particular, to the greatest affinity element thulium. (3), thulium in the X-ray intensifying screen to do with a phosphor activator LaOBr: Br (blue), to enhance the optical sensitivity, thus lowering the X-ray exposure and harm to human, with the previous Calcium Tungstate Intensifying Screens X-ray dose can be reduced compared to 50%, which has important practical applications in medical significance. (4) thulium can also do a new additive metal halogen light sources. (5) Tm3 + to rare-earth glass, the glass can be made of laser material, which is currently the largest amount of output pulse, the highest output power solid-state laser materials. Tm3 + rare-earth conversion also can be activated ion laser material.
Ytterbium (Yb)
In 1878, Charles (Jean Charles) and 马利格纳克 (G. de Marignac) in the “Er” in the discovery of new rare earth elements, this element by the Ytterby (Ytterby) named Yb (Ytterbium). ?? Ytterbium main uses: (1) for heat shielding coating material. Ytterbium can significantly improve the power level of corrosion resistance of Zn and Yb with Yb coating layer than the non-fine grain, even and compact. (2) for magnetostrictive material. This material is super magnetostrictive properties in the magnetic field expansion. The alloy is mainly composed of Yb / Dy alloy and ferrite / ferrite alloy composition, and adding a certain proportion of manganese, in order to produce ultra-magnetostrictive. (3) for the determination of the pressure of ytterbium components, test proved that the pressure of ytterbium element in the calibration range of high sensitivity, while for the determination of Yb in the application of pressure to open up a new way. (4) molar empty resin filler to replace the commonly used silver amalgam in the past. (5) successful completion of Japanese scholars ytterbium doped gadolinium gallium garnet waveguide lasers buried line preparation work to complete this work, the further development of laser technology makes sense. In addition, the ytterbium is also used phosphor activator, radio ceramics, computer memory devices (magnetic) additives, and glass fiber optical glass flux and additives.
Lutetium (Lu)
In 1907, Welsbach and You Beien (G. Urbain) to conduct their own research, using different separation methods from the “Yb” in a new element was discovered, Welsbach named this element of Cp (Cassiopeium ), You Beien the old name under the Paris lutece be named Lu (Lutetium). Cp and Lu later found the same factors, we unified as Lu. ?? Lu’s main purposes are: (1) create some special alloys. For example, lutetium aluminum alloy can be used for neutron activation analysis. (2) stable lutetium nuclides in the oil cracking, alkylation, hydrogenation, and polymerization catalytic effect. (3), yttrium iron or yttrium aluminum garnet add elements to improve certain properties. (4) magnetic bubble storage device materials. (5) a compound functional crystal doped with neodymium yttrium aluminum borate lutetium, belonging to the growth of crystals of salt solution to cool technology, experimental results show that doped Lu NYAB crystal in optical homogeneity and laser performance are better than NYAB crystal. (6) by the foreign authorities found that Lu in the electrochromic display and low-dimensional molecular semiconductors with potential applications. In addition, Lu also used for energy battery technology, and the activation of fluorescent agent.
Yttrium (Y)
1788, 1 to study the chemistry and mineralogy, mineral collecting hobby that Swedish officers 卡尔阿雷尼 ust (Karl Arrhenius) in Stockholm outside Ytterby Bay Village (Ytterby), found in appearance as asphalt and coal black, like minerals, called by local names Ytterby mine (Ytterbite). 1794 Finnish chemist 约翰加多林 analysis of ore samples that Ytterby. Found that addition of beryllium, silicon, iron oxides, but also contains 38% of the unknown element oxides date the “new earth.” 1797, Swedish chemist Ekeberg (Anders Gustaf Ekeberg) confirmed this “new earth”, named for the yttrium earth (Yttria, yttrium oxide intended). Y is a versatile metal, mainly used in: (1) steel and non-ferrous alloy additives. FeCr alloy usually containing 0.5-4% yttrium, yttrium can enhance the oxidation resistance and ductility of stainless steel; MB26 alloy adding an appropriate amount of yttrium-rich mixed rare earth, the comprehensive properties are significantly improved, can replace some of the strength of aluminum alloys for use in aircraft by the force member; in Al-Zr alloy by adding a small amount of yttrium-rich rare earth alloy can increase the conductivity; the alloy has been used for the majority of national electric wire factory; addition of yttrium in copper alloys to improve the electrical conductivity and mechanical strength. (2) 6% yttrium and aluminum 2% of the silicon nitride ceramic materials, can be used to develop engine components. (3) power of 400 watts with a neodymium YAG laser beams to large components for drilling, cutting and welding machinery. (4) from Y-Al garnet single chip composed of electron microscope screen, fluorescent, high brightness, low absorption of the scattered light, high temperature and good resistance to mechanical wear. (5) 90% yttrium structure of the high-Y alloys, air and other requirements can be applied to low-density and high melting point of the occasion. (6) of the time people concerned about high-temperature proton conductivity doped yttrium SrZrO3 materials, fuel cells, electrolytic cell and requirements of the high solubility of hydrogen gas sensor production is of great significance. In addition, the Y is also used for high-temperature coating materials, nuclear reactor fuel diluents, additives and permanent magnetic materials for the electronics industry breathing agent.
Scandium (Sc)
In 1879, Swedish professor of chemistry Nelson (LFNilson, 1840 ~ 1899) and Clive (PTCleve, 1840 ~ 1905) almost simultaneously in the rare mineral ore and black yttrium silicon thin beryllium found a gold mine new element. They gave the element named “Scandium” (Sc), Sc is predicted by Mendeleev had the “Class B” element. Their findings proved once again the correctness and the Mendeleev Periodic Law of Elements vision. Sc than the Y and lanthanide elements, due to very small ionic radius, the alkaline hydroxide is particularly weak, so when the scandium and rare earth elements mixed with ammonia (or a very dilute alkali) process, will be the first scandium precipitation, so application of “precipitation” method it can be more easily separated from the rare earth elements. Another method is to use the sub-polar decomposition of nitrate were separated, as the most likely decomposition of scandium nitrate to achieve the separation. ?? Electrolytic method can be obtained by metal scandium, scandium in refining will ScCl3, KCl, LiCl eutectic to melt the zinc cathode electrolysis to Sc precipitates in the zinc pole, and then steamed to the availability of zinc metal Sc. In addition, production of uranium ore processing, thorium and lanthanides easy to recall when the scandium. Tungsten, tin in the comprehensive recovery associated scandium scandium is one of the important sources. Sc in the compound were three major valence states, easily oxidized in air Sc2O3 lost into the dark gray metallic luster. Scandium main uses: (1) the role of scandium with water release hydrogen, but also soluble in acid, is a strong reducing agent. (2) scandium oxides and hydroxides were only basic, but hardly gray salt hydrolysis. Scandium chloride white crystal, easily soluble in water and deliquescence in the air. (3) in the metallurgical industry, scandium commonly used in the manufacture of alloys (alloy additives) to improve tensile strength, hardness and heat resistance and performance. For example, in the molten iron in a small amount of scandium, can significantly improve the performance of cast iron, adding a small amount of scandium in aluminum, can improve their strength and heat resistance. (4) in the electronics industry, scandium used for a variety of semiconductor devices, such as scandium sulfite in semiconductor application has attracted attention at home and abroad, including scandium ferrite cores in the computer is also quite future. (5) in the chemical industry, with the scandium compounds for ethanol dehydrogenation and dehydration, the production of ethylene and chlorine production using the waste hydrochloric acid when the catalyst efficiency. (6) in the glass industry, can create special glass containing scandium. (7) in the electric light industry, made with scandium scandium and sodium sodium lamp, high efficiency and light color are the advantages. (8) nature in the form of scandium are 45Sc In addition, there are nine kinds of radioactive isotopes of scandium, or 40 ~ 44Sc and 46 ~ 49Sc. Which, 46Sc as a tracer in chemical engineering, metallurgy and oceanography use of. In medicine, there are people overseas research 46Sc to cure cancer.

Properties and Application of Rare Earth Elements
Most of the paramagnetic rare earth metals present. Gd at 0 ℃ more than a ferromagnetic iron. Terbium, dysprosium, holmium, erbium, etc. are also present in the low temperature magnetic properties of iron, lanthanum, cerium’s low melting point and samarium, europium, ytterbium rare earth high steam pressure gauge Xianchu very different physical properties. Samarium, europium, yttrium thermal neutron absorption cross section than the material used in nuclear reactor control of cadmium, boron is also great. Rare earth metal with plastic, to the best of samarium and ytterbium. In addition to ytterbium, the yttrium group rare earth cerium group rare earth higher than the hardness. Rare earth metals has been widely used in electronics, petrochemical, metallurgy, machinery, energy, light industry, environmental protection, agriculture and other fields. Application of Rare Earth can produce fluorescent materials, rare earth metal hydride battery materials, power source material, permanent magnetic materials, hydrogen storage materials, catalytic materials, precision ceramic materials, laser materials, superconducting materials, magnetostrictive materials, magnetic refrigeration materials, magneto-optical storage materials, optical fiber materials. China has rich rare-earth mineral resources, ore favorable conditions, can be called unique, proven reserves largest in the world for the development of rare earth industry in China provides a solid foundation.
The main features of rare earth minerals
The average REE content in the crust 165.35 × 10-6 (Li Tong, 1976). Rare earth elements in nature mainly in the form of a single mineral, the world has been discovered containing rare earth minerals and rare earth elements have more than 250 kinds of minerals, including rare earth content ΣREE> 5.8% were 50 to 65 species of rare earth may be regarded as independent minerals. Important rare earth minerals are mainly carbonate and phosphate fluoride. The general characteristics of rare earth minerals: First, the lack of sulfide and sulfate (only a very few), this explanation of rare earth elements have an affinity for oxygen; second main island of rare earth silicates, not layered, shelf-like and chain like structure; third part of the rare earth minerals (especially complex oxides and silicates) showed amorphous state; Fourth, the distribution of rare earth minerals in igneous rocks and pegmatites in silicate and oxide-based in hydrothermal deposits and weathering crusts of carbonate deposits in order to fluoride, phosphate-based. Most of the mineral-rich yttrium there Ode granitoid rocks and associated pegmatites, epithermal deposits and hydrothermal gas deposits; Fifth REE due to their atomic structure, chemistry and crystal chemistry of a similar nature and often coexist in the same minerals that cerium and yttrium rare earth family often coexist in a family of rare earth minerals, but these elements are not equal co-existence, and some minerals containing rare earth cerium-based family, some of the main mineral Ze Yi Y family. In the current has been found more than 250 kinds of rare earth minerals and minerals containing rare earth elements, for the present conditions of industrial pollution of those toxic only 10 kinds of minerals: 1) family with cerium rare earth (La, Ce, Nd) mineral: Bastnaesite Mine, mine fluorocarbon calcium cerium, Bastnaesite calcium deposits, fluorocarbon barium cerium ore and monazite. 2), samarium and gadolinium-rich minerals: silicon beryllium ore yttrium, niobium and yttrium ore, rare black gold. 3) The family of rare earth containing yttrium (yttrium, dysprosium, erbium, thulium, etc.) minerals: phosphorus Yttrium ore mining fluorocarbon calcium yttrium, yttrium Aeschynite, brown Yttrium Niobium, rare black gold. Rare element in nature mainly related to the existence Fu dispersed metal minerals such as sphalerite are generally rich in cadmium, germanium, gallium, indium, etc., individual also contain thallium, selenium and tellurium; chalcopyrite, tetrahedrite

Technology Definitions
Chinese name: Tethys English name: Tethys other name: the definition of an ancient Mediterranean: the history of the period to exist in the Gondwana and Laurasia between the waters. Today its remains of the Mediterranean. Their subjects: Geography (1 subject); ancient geography (2 subjects) Definition 2: Two super-Mesozoic continental – Laurasia and Gondwana continent between the ancient continent extends from east to west near the great ancient ocean. Respective disciplines: marine science and technology (a subject); Marine Science (2 subjects); marine geology, marine geophysics, marine geography and the Estuarine and Coastal Research (3 subjects)
Tethys in northern Laurasia and southern Gondwana ocean between the ancient long. 1893 E. Matthews Austrian geologist Creative Tethys term, which comes from ancient Greek mythology, the god of Hohai wife’s name. As such its modern remnants of the Mediterranean between Europe and Africa, it is also known as the ancient Mediterranean.
Situation
Tethys (Tethys) in the southern hemisphere Gondwana and Laurasia in the northern hemisphere between the ancient ocean. Also known as the ancient Mediterranean. Modern Mediterranean is 特提斯海特 Tisi Hai residual waters. History of the period to exist in Laurasia and Gondwana waters between. Today in the Mediterranean between Europe and Africa, some of its residues. Roughly along the Alpine – Himalayan fold belt, distribution, from west to east, including the Pyrenees today, Atlas, Apennines, Alps, Carpathians, Caucasus, Zagros, Hindu Kush, Himalayas and other great mountain ranges, then turned to Southeast Asia, and extends to Sumatra and Timor, and Central Pacific Ocean connectivity. Ancient Mediterranean may already occur in the late Proterozoic, but the range is very different to change the history of the period. Late Permian, the emergence of a North-South confrontation on Earth but interconnected pan-continent, the ancient Mediterranean narrowed. Triassic after the narrowing or even closure of the west, the east is still open. The late Cretaceous, the sea out of Southern Alps region and Southeast Asia; the end of Oligocene to Miocene, the Himalayan region also increased as land. After Himalayan movement, the ancient eastern Mediterranean disappear. Alps form a fold uplift movement, split the southern European part of the ancient Mediterranean, forming the present Mediterranean, Black Sea and Caspian Sea.
Introduction
Northern Laurasia and southern Gondwana ocean between the ancient long. 1893 E. Matthews Austrian geologist Creative Tethys term, the Tethys based on ancient Greek mythology, the god of Hohai wife’s name. As such its modern remnants of the Mediterranean between Europe and Africa, it is also known as the ancient Mediterranean. In 1885, German geologist M. Neumaier southern Eurasia and northern Africa, according to the Jurassic and Early Cretaceous tropical and subtropical marine fauna that once there is a nearly east-west equatorial ocean Mesozoic idea, saying as “the central Mediterranean.” Austrian geologist E. Matthews 60 years in the 19th century had noted between the Alps and the Himalayas Mesozoic (especially Triassic) fauna of the close relationship. 1893, Matthews will be the “Central Mediterranean” has been renamed “Tethys”, that is a vast sea area. After the introduction of plate tectonic theory, generally known as the Tethys Sea, representing north and south between the two continents with oceanic basement on both sides of the ocean and its continental margin waters of different depths. Meanwhile, according to the different history and location, will be developed since the Triassic, the Tethys Ocean, and the Paleozoic of the “Paleo-Tethys Ocean” to distinguish. Paleo-Tethys Ocean, also known as the “first Tethys”, “permanent Tethys” or the “Paleozoic Tethys,” the scope of its size, there are different perceptions. According to some scholars since the Ordovician, marine biological area became clear and the late Ordovician ice sheet Xigangwana mainland China and outside of the Ice deposit does not meet the Central and Southern Europe north of the phenomena that exist in the Central and Southern Europe along the ancient Tethys Ocean, the late Paleozoic, as Laurasia and Gondwana phase, the ocean area closed. Other scholars take into account not found the real substance of oceanic crust, that the waters belong to the ancient areas of the European continent; also suggested that should belong to the edge of Gondwana sea, known as the “EU foreign.” Eastern Paleo-Tethys Ocean, the main general from Iran and northern Afghanistan, the Karakorum Mountains of Tibet by China and the Lancang River, into Indochina. Some people believe that China Kunlun Mountains, Qinling and Qilian Mountain region also belong to category Paleo-Tethys. Eastern Paleo-Tethys Geological experience complex, different parts of oceanic crust formed in different times, the scale is different. Late Triassic or Jurassic time, along with fragments of Gondwana continental margin (Turkey, Iran and Central, Gangdise, Myanmar, Shan State and other land) and Laurasia northward drift and put together, this may be from the former Late Precambrian (Sinian) had emerged in the ancient ocean areas have disappeared. Triassic Tethys began to emerge, it was called “Neo-Tethys Ocean” or “Mesozoic Tethys”, located south of Paleo-Tethys Ocean, located in modern southern Europe (Pyrenees, Alps, Apennines, Carpathian Mountains) and northern Africa, Asia Minor, southern Iran, southern Tibet, Indochina and Indonesia, the western area, connected with the ancient Pacific Ocean; the west end could include the Central American Caribbean. Its original direction is also generally extend east to the west, western section of narrow, eastern wide. In the western sector, the foreign areas in the Hercynian fold developed on the basis; in the eastern sector, from the waters edge of Gondwana formation of further expansion. Early and Middle Triassic, the Tethys Ocean area began to subside, Late Triassic to Early Jurassic, the oceanic further cracking to ophiolite as the representative began to form oceanic crust, but its scope and the early , in the Triassic are not the same. Jurassic in the late Early Cretaceous, the oceanic general strong subsidence, ocean expansion, internal structure and facies variation of the thickness changed significantly, the original carbonate platform collapsed to the formation of oceanic crust. Mid-Cretaceous, due to expansion of the Atlantic and the northward drift of India’s land mass, Tethys Ocean began to shrink. Most of Early Tertiary Tethys closed, and gradually rose to its lofty mountains, a number of inland local residues (the Black Sea, Mediterranean and Li Haixi Department), until the modern. Central America Caribbean, Neumeier and modern, some scholars have considered to be part of Tethys. However, some scholars believe that the Caribbean region (with the central Atlantic Ocean) and Tethys than early Late Jurassic and Cretaceous have the same history, there is no overall link. In addition, some scholars believe that the Late Jurassic Tethys Ocean is connected by several small ocean basin formed, from west to east is 加勒比特提斯, central Atlantic, Bo Meng – Lee ancient ocean (Southern Europe), Ocean Teti northwest edge of Sri Lanka and Western Australia.
Find
In 1885, German scholars M · Neumaier proposed Mesozoic ocean to the equator there is a vision of what is called the central Mediterranean. In 1893, the Austrian scholar E · Matthews that the central Mediterranean is a vast sea area, renamed the Tethys. After the introduction of plate tectonic theory, the sea area known as the Tethys Ocean. Paleozoic of the Tethys Ocean generally known or Paleozoic Paleo-Tethys Ocean Tethys; the Triassic Tethys, said after the new or the Mesozoic Tethys Ocean Tethys. According to their research, some scholars believe that there is in the Central and Southern Europe along the Paleo-Tethys Ocean, the late Paleozoic, as Laurasia and Gondwana is connected, the ocean area tend to close. Neo-Tethys Ocean Paleo-Tethys Ocean in the south, located in modern southern Europe, northern Africa, Asia Minor and southern Iran, southern Tibet, Indochina and Indonesia, the western area, connected with the ancient Pacific Ocean, may include Central America, the Caribbean, the western end of area.
Change
In the early Permian 280 million years ago, the now vast Qinghai-Tibet Plateau is the rough sea. The sea is now running through the southern part of Eurasia, and North Africa, southern Europe, West Asia and Southeast Asia area of communication, called “Tethys” or “ancient Mediterranean.” Tethys region’s climate was very warm, the sea a vivid, lush area of plant development. Tethys in the north and south sides of that time was that it split off from the original ancient land. South of Gondwana, including today’s South America, Africa, Australia, Antarctica and Eurasia; north of Eurasia, including today’s Europe, Asia, North America. The late Permian, Earth, North and South two continents began to split, drift, forming plates. After separating the Indian plate, moving northward at a faster rate, Tethyan oceanic crust by the strong squeeze, continue to occur and the fold increase in fracture. To 40 million years ago the late Eocene, the Indian plate and Eurasian plate collision, leading to intense tectonic movement, so that all showing off the Himalayan region, Tethys die, declare the entire plateau area maritime history end.
Disappearance of
About Tethys disappeared because, over the years has been to scholars to explore the old issue, but also to the academic study of the Tethys today “hot spots” problem. The last century did not, the beginning of this century, some geologists based on information obtained at the time, coupled with imagination, put forward various hypotheses about the demise of the Tethys. In modern times, scientific and technical means than in the past has made significant progress, the available much richer than in the past, so, a variety of viewpoints, both reject the negative, there and mix evolved into two schools: fixed on and activities of. Fixed argued that today is a composite of the Mediterranean basin. Settlement of its land mass in the co-operation with the use of crack, the formation of a marginal sea, volcanic activity and earthquakes often occur is the most important evidence. Fixed on the Mediterranean are also outlined some of the characteristics of composite basin. China’s well-known geologist Professor Huang Jiqing tank founded by multi-cycle units that deal with formation and evolution of Ti Sihai made a persuasive argument. For example, the mainland and other regions in China and found a very 多特提斯海 the peak of the fossils, sedimentary rocks, lava rock and volcanic material. Xinjiang is also found in China only in the growth of Gondwana land animals had water Drake, two teeth animal fossils. Even the Gondwana and Eurasia collision suture, also China’s Tibet, Xinjiang, Qinghai border found. Not only that, people also believe that the Himalayas, Alps, a Mediterranean one is a new generation in the zone since the geosyncline. Activities on the fact that with continental drift, seafloor spreading, plate tectonics to explain that the causes of the Mediterranean. “Ge Luoma Challenger” No. drilling ship in the world’s oceans were a large number of drill core data, as well as magnetic stripe ancient seabed was found to make people more reasons to believe that the land caused by seafloor spreading plate drift. According to this theory, the gradual expansion of the Atlantic, the Pacific is gradually reduced, and is located in Europe, Africa, Asia and the mainland in the Mediterranean, is in the process of gradual extinction. So, some scientists believe that today is 古特提斯海 part of the Mediterranean. 250 million years ago, the Tethys in northern Eurasia and South Gondwana continents, due to the drift of continental plates, two blocks north and south near the ancient land gradually, making the eastern part of Tethys and India in the Arabian plate suture with the Asian plate after plate drift gradually attributed to the demise of the Himalayan mountain range is the suture line; western Tethys, as the African plate and the Eurasian plate in the near, gradually lifting occurs, the formation of the Alps mountain ranges. Therefore, today’s Mediterranean can be seen as entirely residual part of the Tethys Sea.
Animal
Geologists found that the period before the start of sedimentary strata are mainly light green and gray-green rock debris, during which there are the seam Tethys of paleontology. This shows that, when warm, humid, lush vegetation. Tall ferns, seed ferns, cycads and other plants formed a dense forest, while wandering in the forest is wet with various hi-hi, the animals warm. In the forest and forest edge on the depression between the rivers, lakes and swamps dotted, some large waterfront living amphibians, like mammals and reptiles in the false Crocodile. This landscape may be continued until the late Triassic. To the early Jurassic the climate began to change, dry and hot climate, temperature and humidity to replace the past climate, which can be accumulated in the ground into the red formation, in which the chemical composition rich in calcium and iron oxides common bond and wait until the show. This climate was universal, global. This is undoubtedly more suitable climatic conditions totally separated from the water restrictions, like heat and drought, the development of reptiles. Dinosaur class was in such conditions on Earth became ruler of the land environment. A large number of fossils show dinosaur species during this period is not a lot of class. These primitive dinosaurs, including a small theropod, the ancient and primitive birds foot class hip class, Coelophysis, Lufengosaur, Lesotho dragons is their representative. These early types of dinosaurs are those in the later days of Tethys of paleontology in the earth 100 million years of rule, long a pioneer in a wide variety of dinosaurs, the Jurassic, Cretaceous ancestors of all dinosaurs. As found in all this time on the land mass is consistent with dinosaur fossils, the scientists infer that the dinosaur fauna is worldwide, so this animal group known as the Central Tethys dinosaur fauna. Related to the strata containing dinosaur fossils in Asia, Africa, Europe and the Americas are found. One of the most representative of the fossil locations Karoo Basin of South Africa and Lesotho, the United States, Arizona, New Mexico and Texas, the final demise of the location of Kenya Te
Here is the final demise of the location 古特提斯海 【Chinese Academy of Sciences reported that group in front of the Hoh Xil special text expedition’s high-Qi October 20th scientific expedition team reported】 sent six vehicles to west close to Mt Buller in winter and if the Tethys Lacan on the area. Color black in the two partial pass before the expedition got off to find some rocks formed under high pressure, quickly find some green stones, which are ultramafic volcanic rocks, there are many hardness second only to diamonds corundum composition. Here is the final demise of 古特提斯海 location is the famous Jinsha suture. According to the information introduced in the Paleozoic, the mainland are divided into only two original ancient land north and south, separated by the middle of the Pacific is now much larger than the Tethys. Tethys Gondwana south, including today’s South America, Africa, Australia, Antarctica and Eurasia; north of Eurasia, including today’s Europe, Asia, North America. In the late Permian, Earth, North and South two continents began to split, drift, forming plates. After separating the Indian plate, moving northward at a faster rate, Tethyan oceanic crust by the strong squeeze, continue to occur and the fold increase in fracture. To 65 million years ago the late Eocene, the Indian plate and Eurasian plate collision, leading to intense tectonic movement, so that all showing off the Himalayan region, Tethys die, declare the entire plateau area maritime history end. Geographers have been looking for the final disappearance of the Tethys and Eurasia convergence position several times in the previous expedition, the expedition team reached the place is now generally regarded as the Tethys to the Eurasia diving the last to leave the interface, because the remnants of Paleo-Tethys from the European Alps, mountain east Alba footpath through Turkey, Iran, Afghanistan, through northern Tibet and China, eastern Tibet, Sichuan and Yunnan and then turns sharply to the west, then toward the Indochina, it’s to good agreement with the Jinsha River, it will be the two very narrow continental suture zone known as the Jinsha suture. Although this research remains to be many, but today in this position, the expedition team found that many are ancient marine and continental plate collision produced many extraordinary circumstances of material.
Related
According to their research, some scholars believe that there is in the Central and Southern Europe along the Paleo-Tethys Ocean, the late Paleozoic, as Laurasia and Gondwana is connected, the ocean area tend to close. Neo-Tethys Ocean Paleo-Tethys Ocean in the south, located in modern southern Europe, northern Africa, Asia Minor and southern Iran, southern Tibet, Indochina and Indonesia, the western area, connected with the ancient Pacific Ocean, may include Central America, the Caribbean, the western end of area. In 1885, some scholars believe that the Caribbean region (with the central Atlantic Ocean) and Tethys than early Late Jurassic and Cretaceous have the same history, the German geologist M. Neumeier based in southern Eurasia and northern Africa, Jurassic and Early Cretaceous tropical and subtropical marine fauna that once there is a nearly east-west equatorial ocean Mesozoic idea, called “the central Mediterranean.” However, the Austrian geologist E. Hughes in the 19th century, had notes of 60 years between the Alps and the Himalayas Mesozoic (Triassic in particular) the close relationship between animal groups. 1893, Matthews will be the “Central Mediterranean” has been renamed “Tethys”, that is a vast sea area. After the introduction of plate tectonic theory, and gradually rose to its lofty mountain ranges, generally known as the Tethys Sea, representing north and south between the two continents with oceanic basement on both sides of the ocean and its continental margin waters of different depths. Meanwhile, according to the different history and location, will be developed since the Triassic, the Tethys Ocean, and the Paleozoic of the “Paleo-Tethys Ocean” to distinguish. Paleo-Tethys Ocean, also known as the “first Tethys”, “permanent Tethys” or the “Paleozoic Tethys,” the scope of its size, there are different perceptions. Oceanic crust to form. According to some scholars since the Ordovician, the original carbonate platform collapse, marine biological area became clear and the late Ordovician ice sheet Xigangwana mainland China and outside of Ice Deposition in Southern Europe has not reached the phenomena of the north that exist in the Central and Southern Europe along the Paleo-Tethys Ocean, the late Paleozoic, as Laurasia and Gondwana phase, the ocean area closed. Other scholars take into account not found true of the oceanic crust material, believe that this sea areas are owned ancient European mainland China Fan Chou; 也 people that belong to Gondwana mainland China’s Bian Yuan Ying sea, but its scope and Zao, not the Yi Zhi Zhong Sandie World O’clock . Called “EU foreign.” Late Triassic to Early Jurassic, the oceanic further cracking to ophiolite as the representative began to form oceanic crust, eastern Paleo-Tethys Ocean, the main general from Iran and northern Afghanistan, Cameroon by the China Tibet La Kunlun Mountains and the Lancang River, into Indochina. The Western District, based on the Hercynian fold developed; in the eastern sector, was that China Kunlun Mountains, the Qinling Mountains and the Qilian Mountains region also belong to category Paleo-Tethys. Eastern Paleo-Tethys Geological experience complex, narrow western section, the formation of oceanic crust in different regions are different from the direction of its original extension is generally east to the west, the scale is different. Late Triassic or Jurassic, the distribution of the modern southern Europe (Pyrenees, the Alps, Apennines, Carpathian Mountains) and northern Africa, Asia Minor, southern Iran, southern Tibet, Indochina and the western Indonesia, along with fragments of Gondwana continental margin (Turkey, Iran and Central, Gangdise, Myanmar Shan State and other land) and Laurasia northward drift and put together, this may be from the late Precambrian (Sinian JI) had emerged in the ancient ocean areas have disappeared. Triassic Tethys began to emerge, it was called “Neo-Tethys Ocean” or “Mesozoic Tethys”, located south of Paleo-Tethys Ocean, located in modern southern Europe (Pyrenees, Alps, Apennines, Carpathian Mountains) and northern Africa, Asia Minor, southern Iran, southern Tibet, Indochina and Indonesia, the western area, connected with the ancient Pacific Ocean; the west end could include the Central American Caribbean. Its original direction is also generally extend east to the west, western section of narrow, eastern wide. In the western sector, the foreign areas in the Hercynian fold developed on the basis; in the eastern sector, from the waters edge of Gondwana formation of further expansion. Early and Middle Triassic, its main general from Iran and northern Afghanistan, Tethys area began to subside, Late Triassic to Early Jurassic, the oceanic further cracking to ophiolite as the representative of foreign shell begins to form, but its scope and the Early and Middle Triassic are not the same. Jurassic in the late Early Cretaceous, the oceanic general strong subsidence, ocean expansion, internal structure and facies variation of the thickness changed significantly, the original carbonate platform collapsed, according to some scholars since the Ordovician, oceanic crust to form . Mid-Cretaceous, according to the different history and location, will be developed since the Triassic, the Tethys Ocean, and the Paleozoic of the “Paleo-Tethys Ocean” to distinguish. As the expansion of the Atlantic and Indian land mass moving north, Tethys Ocean began to shrink. Most of Early Tertiary Tethys closed, and gradually rose to its lofty mountains, plate tectonics theory is proposed, a number of inland local residues (the Black Sea, Mediterranean and Li Haixi Department), until the modern. Central America Caribbean, 1893, Neumeier and modern, some scholars have considered to be part of Tethys. Austrian geologist E. Matthews 60 years in the 19th century had noted between the Alps and the Himalayas Mesozoic (especially Triassic) fauna of the close relationship. However, the German geologist M. Neumaier southern Eurasia and northern Africa, according to the Jurassic and Early Cretaceous tropical and subtropical marine fauna that once there is a nearly east-west equatorial ocean Mesozoic idea, termed as “the central Mediterranean.” Some scholars believe that the Caribbean region (with the central Atlantic) and the Tethys Ocean Apart from the Late Jurassic and Early Cretaceous with the same history, the 1885, not the whole link. In addition, some scholars believe that the Late Jurassic Tethys Ocean is connected by several small ocean basin formed, from west to east is 加勒比特提斯, central Atlantic, Bo Meng – Lee ancient ocean (Southern Europe), Ocean Teti northwest edge of Sri Lanka and Western Australia。

In addition to new energy vehicles refers to gasoline and diesel engine vehicles than all other energy sources. Including fuel cell cars, hybrid cars, hydrogen powered cars and solar cars. Lower emissions than. According to incomplete statistics, more than 4 million worldwide existing liquefied petroleum gas vehicles, more than 100 million natural gas vehicles. Chinese market in the sale of new energy vehicles are hybrid vehicles.
Description
English name: New energy vehicles “new energy automobile manufacturing companies and product access management rules” was July 1, 2009 the formal implementation of the “rules” emphatically clear: the new energy new energy vehicles refers to vehicles used unconventional vehicle fuel as a power source (or the use of conventional vehicle fuels, using new-car power unit), integrated power control and drive the vehicle’s advanced technology, the technological principles of advanced, with new technology, new structure of vehicles. New energy vehicles, including hybrid electric vehicle (HEV), electric vehicle (BEV, including solar car), fuel cell electric vehicle (FCEV), hydrogen engine vehicles, other new energy sources (such as high energy storage devices, dimethyl ether) and automobile various types of products.
Government subsidies
Ministry of Finance, Ministry of Science and the four ministries for the 13 energy-saving and new energy vehicle demonstration pilot cities to promote the Award, and clearly the government will subsidize the consumer, big market model to encourage production, R & D energy-saving and new energy vehicles, This will promote China’s development of energy-saving and new energy vehicles to a new level. Pilot promotion, that fiscal policy to encourage public transportation, rental, service, sanitation and postal and other public services take the lead in promoting the use of energy-saving and new energy vehicles. The central government on the public service, demonstration and extension units to purchase and use of energy-saving and new energy vehicles for the grant, local finance construction of related facilities and maintenance will also be given subsidies. Recently introduced the “energy-saving and new energy vehicle demonstration and extension of financial subsidies for Interim Measures,” confirmed the range of allowances and subsidies. In addition, the demonstration unit to be taken to promote preferential procurement tenders, and to identify model, quantity, price and after-sales service.
Standard range
February 2009, the Ministry of Finance, Ministry of Science, Development and Reform Commission, the four ministries, the Ministry of Industry held a “new energy vehicles Demonstration and pilot session.” Since some cities to apply to participate actively participate in “10 City 1000″ project to the city list is now 13, Beijing, Shanghai and other cities selected. Length of new energy vehicles for more than 10 meters city bus was the focus of subsidies, of which the maximum subsidy per hybrid bus 420 thousand yuan, pure electric and fuel cell bus subsidies to 500,000 yuan each, respectively, and 600,000 yuan. “This effective very good pilot, has thousands of vehicles to promote new energy vehicles, this year intends to expand the pilot, and in some cities, individual purchase of new energy vehicles started a pilot.” Ministry of Finance and the Ministry of Industry and the country “two sessions” during the same time that individual purchase of new energy vehicles will be implemented purchase subsidies. Ministry of Finance of the hybrid fuel-efficient cars subsidies in accordance with the standard rate of subsidy is divided into five files, the maximum subsidies for 50,000 yuan per vehicle; pure electric vehicles can be subsidized 60000 yuan each; fuel cell vehicles to subsidize 250,000 yuan each. 10 meters above the standard city bus and another, which is divided into use of hybrid vehicles use nickel-metal hydride batteries and lead acid batteries, lithium-ion battery types, the maximum subsidy was 80,000 yuan / vehicle, and 420,000 yuan / vehicle; pure Electric car allowance standard 50 yuan / vehicle; fuel cell car allowances of up to 600,000 yuan / vehicle. June 2010, the Ministry of Finance and many other ministries jointly issued “on the purchase of new energy vehicles to carry out subsidies for private pilot’s notice” to determine in Shanghai, Changchun, Shenzhen, Hangzhou, Hefei and other five cities for new energy vehicles started to subsidize a private pilot . “Notice” clearly, the central government on the pilot cities of private purchase, registration and use of plug-in hybrid electric passenger cars and passenger cars for one-time subsidy. Subsidies to the energy standards established under the battery pack on the supporting conditions to meet the new energy vehicles, according to 3000 yuan / kwh subsidies. Plug-in hybrid vehicle the maximum subsidy per 50,000 yuan, the highest of pure electric passenger vehicles per 60,000 yuan subsidy.
City trial
2009 Chinese New Year, the Ministry of Finance, Ministry of Science issued a “on energy conservation and new energy vehicle demonstration pilot projects to promote the work of the notice”, must be green cars in Beijing, Shanghai, Chongqing, Changchun, Dalian, Hangzhou, Jinan, Wuhan, Shenzhen, Hefei, Changsha, Kunming, Nanchang, carried out in 13 cities in energy saving and new energy vehicle demonstration and extension of experimental work; encourage the pilot cities took the lead in public transportation, rental, service, sanitation and postal and other public services promote the use of energy-saving and new energy vehicles. “Notice” clear that the central government focuses on the purchase of hybrid vehicles pilot cities, pure electric vehicles and fuel cells for energy saving and new energy vehicles off fixed grants. “Notice” also asked some local finance capital, saving and new energy vehicles on facilities construction and maintenance of appropriate subsidies and other related expenses to ensure the smooth progress of the pilot work. Incomplete statistics, the moderate cost of hybrid vehicles than the average gasoline powered car with the type of your 30 to 50 percent.
Technical Difficulties
The current state of new energy vehicles for significant policy and financial support; scientific and technological point: 1, battery capacity; 2, the engine system; 3, electronic control systems; vanguard of domestic research at Tsinghua University and Shanghai Jiaotong University and Tongji University Automotive Institute. However, in June 1, 2010 “notice” was published in five pilot cities are: Shanghai, Changchun, Shenzhen, Hangzhou, Hefei and other five cities. In addition to outside Shanghai and Shenzhen, Changchun, Hangzhou, Hefei City, the three accidents a “dark horse”, became the first pilot city.
Classification of new energy vehicles
Introduction
New energy vehicles refers to the use of unconventional vehicle fuel as a power source (or use the conventional vehicle fuels, but using the new-car power unit), integrated power control and drive the vehicle’s advanced technology, the technological principles of advanced with new technology, new structure of vehicles. New energy vehicles include: Hybrid Electric Vehicle (HEV), electric vehicle (BEV), fuel cell vehicles (FCEV), hydrogen cars, and gas car engines, cars and so on ether
Hybrid cars
Hybrid refers to those using traditional fuels, also accompanied by motor / engine to improve the low power output and fuel consumption models. In accordance with the different fuel types, the main can be divided into gasoline and diesel hybrid hybrid of two. Domestic market, hybrid vehicles are the mainstream of gasoline hybrid, diesel hybrid on the international market-based development soon. Advantages of hybrid cars: 1, a hybrid can average after the power to determine the internal combustion engine for use by the maximum power, this time in fuel consumption is low, less pollution, the optimal working condition. Require high-power internal combustion engine power is low, the battery to supplement; load is low, the surplus power can generate electricity to recharge the battery, because internal combustion engine of sustainable work, and can continuously charge the battery, so the itinerary and ordinary cars. 2, because of the battery, it can be easily recovered braking, downhill, the idle energy. 3, in the bustling city can shut down internal combustion engine, driven by the battery alone, to achieve “zero” emissions. 4, with the internal combustion engine can be very convenient solution to energy consumption and air-conditioning, heating, defrosting and other problems encountered in electric vehicles. 5, you can use the existing gas station, do not have to invest. 6, can keep the battery in good working condition, will not overcharge, over-discharge, to extend its service life and reduce costs. Disadvantages: can not fuel-efficient long-distance high-speed driving essential.
Pure electric vehicles
Electric vehicle itself is the main use of electric cars, most of the direct use of motor vehicles, some vehicles to electric cars electric machine mounted in the engine compartment, but also directly to the wheel as part of the four motor rotor, the difficulty lies in the power storage technologies. Pollution of the atmosphere itself is not harmful gas emissions, even if the power consumption by Suo converted to power plant emissions of sulfur and particulate addition, other pollutants have decreased significantly, Youyu power plant built in the most densely populated cities from of human injury less, and the plant is stationary, the concentration of emissions, harmful emissions removal easier, but also has the relevant technology. Because electricity can be from a variety of primary energy such as coal, nuclear, hydro, wind, light, heat, etc., to lift people’s growing oil depletion concerns. Electric cars can also take full advantage of low night when electricity surplus electricity charge, all day and night to make full use of power equipment, greatly enhance the economic benefits. The study shows that the same crude oil through refining, power generation plant sent by the charge into the battery, then battery-powered cars, their energy use more efficient than through the refining into gasoline, gasoline-driven vehicles via high, so help save energy and reduce carbon dioxide emissions, it is these advantages to electric cars research and application as an automotive “hot spots.” Some experts think that the electric car, the biggest obstacle is the infrastructure and the price impact of the industrialization process, as compared with hybrid and electric cars also need the supporting infrastructure, but this is not a business can be resolved , requires the company together with the local government building, only large-scale marketing opportunities. Advantages: relatively simple and mature technology, as long as the local power supply can charge. Disadvantages: At present the energy stored in the battery unit weight of too little, but also more expensive due to the batteries, not any form of economic scale, so buy more expensive, the cost for the use of some expensive trial results than cars, and some results only car 1 / 3, depending on battery life and the local oil and electricity prices.
Fuel cell cars
Fuel cell vehicles is the hydrogen and methanol fuel, generate electricity through chemical reactions, relying on motor vehicles. The battery capacity can fuel cell vehicle model of hydrogen and oxygen through a chemical action, rather than through combustion, directly into electrical energy or the. Fuel cell chemical reaction process does not produce harmful products, it is pollution-free fuel cell vehicles, cars, fuel cell energy conversion efficiency of internal combustion engine is higher than the 2 to 3 times, so from energy use and environmental protection, fuel cell vehicles is an ideal vehicle. Individual fuel cells must be integrated into a fuel cell in order to obtain the necessary power to meet the traffic requirements. In recent years, fuel cell technology has made significant progress. World famous car manufacturer, such as Daimler – Chrysler, Ford, Toyota and General Motors have announced plans by 2004 to fuel cell vehicles to market. Currently, the prototype fuel cell car experiment under way in order to fuel cell-powered bus transport in several cities in North America, the ongoing demonstration projects. In the development of fuel cell vehicles are still technical challenges exist, such as the integration of fuel cell group, increase in business of electric vehicle fuel processor and auxiliary vehicles factory well on the way integration components and reduce component costs of direction, and has made remarkable progress. Compared with conventional vehicles, fuel cell vehicles have the following advantages: 1, zero emission or near zero emissions. 2, reducing water pollution caused by oil leakage. 3, reducing greenhouse gas emissions. 4, improved fuel economy. 5, improved combustion efficiency. 6, running smooth, no noise.
Hydrogen-powered vehicles
Hydrogen-powered vehicles is a truly zero-emission vehicles, emissions are pure water, which has a non-polluting, zero emissions, abundant advantages, therefore, hydrogen-powered vehicles is the ideal alternative to conventional cars. Compared with the conventional electric vehicles, hydrogen cars cost at least 20% higher. China’s Changan Auto China in 2007, completed the first zero-emissions hydrogen engine efficiency, and in the 2008 Beijing auto show exhibited self-developed China’s first hydrogen-powered concept sports car “hydrogen-way.” With the “car society” gradually formed, the volume of car ownership continued upward trend, while oil and other resources are stretched, on the other hand, swallowed a large number of petrol vehicles with emissions of harmful gases and keep pollutants. The final solution is of course not restricted development of automobile industry, but an open alternative to oil, new energy, fuel cell vehicles to roll over four rounds of fast and quiet road, nature in the name printed new energy – hydrogen. Almost all of the world’s auto giants are developing new energy vehicles. Electric cars were once considered the future of power, but a long battery charge time and weight makes it gradually it dull. Present (referring to 2009) combined electric and gasoline hybrid can only temporarily ease the energy crisis can only be reduced but can not get rid of dependence on oil. This time, the emergence of hydrogen fuel cells, like recycling of a Noah’s ark, so people can see from the crisis infinite hope. Hydrogen as motor fuel this argument just came out to surprise people, but in fact it is based. Hydrogen has high energy density, the energy released is sufficient to make car engine running, and hydrogen fuel cells and oxygen in a chemical reaction generates only water, no pollution. Therefore, many scientists predicted that hydrogen fuel cells as energy is the core of 21st century automotive technology, the revolutionary significance of its automotive industry, the equivalent of the microprocessor of the computer industry as important advantages: emissions are pure water, in motion does not produce any pollutants. Disadvantages: high cost of hydrogen fuel cells and hydrogen fuel storage and transportation conditions in accordance with current technology is very difficult, because the hydrogen molecule is very small, easily escape through the shell of storage devices. Also the most fatal problem, the extraction of hydrogen through electrolysis of water or the use of natural gas, this way also need to consume a large amount of energy, unless the use of nuclear power to extract, or can not fundamentally reduce carbon dioxide emissions.
Natural Gas Vehicles
Gas is compressed natural gas vehicles (CNG), liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) and liquefied natural gas (LNG) as fuel for cars. In recent years, the world’s governments are actively seeking solutions to this problem and started to adjust the structure of motor fuel. Gas emissions from vehicles because of its good performance, car fuel mix is adjustable, low operation cost, mature technology, safe and reliable, it has been recognized around the world the best current alternative fuel vehicles. Currently, gas is still the mainstream of the world’s alternative fuel vehicles, alternative fuel vehicles in China account for about 90%. America’s goal is that by 2010, bus areas, 7% of cars use natural gas, 50% of the taxi and shuttle to dedicated natural gas vehicles; to 2010, the German natural gas vehicles will reach 100,000 to 400,000 , from the current 180 stations to at least 300. Industry experts point out that the role of alternative fuels is to reduce and eventually eliminate the supply of oil caused by the pressures and the negative impact of economic development. Recently, China will mainly use compressed natural gas, liquefied petroleum gas, ethanol gasoline for vehicles alternative fuel. Can expand the application of alternative fuel vehicles, alternative fuels depends on the resources of China, distribution, utilization, alternative fuel production and application of technology maturity and the reduction of environmental pollution; alternative fuel production scale, investment, production costs, prices determine their competitiveness with petroleum fuels; car production structure and design improvements must be compatible with the fuel. To replace the fuel gas will be China and the world development trend of automobile. Strength of our organization as soon as possible to develop a national policy on gas car. China’s energy security taking into account the situation of the major oil development, gas vehicles, including a variety of alternative fuel vehicles, is an urgent matter, according to national conditions should be: First, to limit gas prices, oil, gas prices between to maintain a reasonable difference, such as Sichuan, Chongqing’s oil and gas price difference, you can ensure proper development of gas vehicles; two filling stations in view of large investment, long payback period, due to certain government subsidies, in filling stations sold gas prices and car gas savings by consumers between the cost of fuel and regulate the distribution of benefits; Third, the income tax stations, should refer to the high-tech industrial development zone policy to take to avoid two, minus three tax policy; Fourth power stations in accordance with the special treatment of industrial electricity consumption, electricity favorably; In addition, land stations, to major projects and the environmental protection industry, according to treatment on everything, not passing the buck, buck-passing, active use of advanced construction station standards, fire safety science to determine the distance to save land resources.
Bio-ethanol cars
Ethanol, commonly known as alcohol, pop some that the use of ethanol as fuel for cars, also called alcohol car. Replace petroleum with ethanol fuel in 活动 history has Henzhang, both yes and from the Shang Ying Yong Sheng Chan on the Jishu are quite mature, the recent Danyouziyuan tension, car Nengyuan diversification Quxiangjiaju, Yichun car You on the agenda. Currently, there are more than 40 countries, application of different levels of ethanol cars, and some have reached large-scale promotion of the status of rising ethanol vehicle. In the car on the use of ethanol, can increase the fuel octane number, increasing oxygen content, so that more complete combustion cylinder car can reduce harmful exhaust emissions. Application of ethanol to fuel our cars way: First, blended with that application of ethanol and gasoline blends. In the mixed fuel, ethanol and volume in proportion to the “E” said, such as ethanol, 10%, 15%, while with E10, E15 to that at present, accounting for ethanol blended with car dominated. Second, pure fire, that burn ethanol alone can be used E100% said that the current applications are few, belong to the pilot phase; 3, denatured fuel ethanol that ethanol dehydration, then add the denaturing agent and the resulting ethanol, which is an experimental application order step; 4, flexible fuel, that fuel can with gasoline, they can use ethanol or methanol and gasoline fuel mixture ratio can also use hydrogen, and can switch at any time. Such as Ford, Toyota are flexible fuel vehicles in the test (FFV)
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Introduction
This was in 2009 on the Xin Ling Yu’s latest energy research direction, the original name is called “hot magnetic oscillation Fadian technology”, Dangyingyongyu car Deng’s power portable devices O’clock as they may be hydrogen fuel cells, alternative program, and called the “physical fuel cell.” Has developed in the early research stage.
Work
In a magnetic circuit through the magnets in a soft rapid heating and cooling, so that its Curie temperature oscillations up and down periodically, causing magnetic coil in the magnetic flux change periodically, so the continuous AC induction. Heat energy is generated by burning, and then directly into electrical energy. The technical principle it is a physical principle, the concept of the battery usually, are the chemical theory, the two not the same thing. 12 merits
Way by external combustion, stable and efficient power generation, fuel properties ask for much, even with solid fuels for energy. Can heat directly and efficiently into electricity, less the middle link of a mechanical transmission, the calculated values above 40%; only one piston moving parts, eliminating the need for mechanical transmission system, so long life, low maintenance, low cost implementation , a small technical difficulty. The current through the low-temperature fuel cells produce electricity chemically, due to need for catalysts, fuel requirements are high and difficult business transformation. This technology completely overcome the weaknesses of chemical fuel cells. Comprehensive analysis of the advantages and disadvantages of various energy options table type of energy source energy efficiency emissions manufacturing costs and maintenance costs using the cost of additional fuel mileage power to weight supporting device
400 完善” onmouseout=”this.style.backgroundColor=’#fff’”>Ordinary internal combustion engine is limited to facilitate low-poor general general general large light> 400 perfect
Pure battery power generally inconvenient for the highest non-high-low high small weight <300 imperfect
500 完善” onmouseout=”this.style.backgroundColor=’#fff’”>Hybrid limited the maximum convenience of the general high is generally higher general heavier> 500 perfect
Difficulties in high-hydrogen fuel cell-free high-top high-convenient small general <300 imperfect
600 可扩展” onmouseout=”this.style.backgroundColor=’#fff’”>General physical fuel cell-rich large general low-low low-light convenience of> 600 can be extended
On the table, energy sources, energy efficiency, emissions of three indicators to determine the program features a new energy that government policy support; manufacturing costs, using cost, maintenance cost of the program identified three indicators of market costs, additional fuel, power, weight, mileage, equipments four indicators to determine the competitiveness of the program that the user acceptance. As can be seen from the table, pure battery power, hydrogen fuel cells, while having optimum characteristics of the new energy, but the market competitiveness, the hybrid will have a slight advantage. Therefore, the hybrid is a transitional program, pure battery power are complementary programs, and hydrogen fuel cells are difficult to implement the program. Physical fuel cell characteristics taking into account the new energy market and the users many advantages, it has broad development prospect.
Scope
New energy vehicles, boats and other power equipment, distributed power generation.
Other options
1. To improve the efficiency of the old energy vehicles current gasoline and diesel internal combustion engine thermal efficiency of less than 30%, if you count the mechanical efficiency of energy transfer, and other losses, the overall fuel efficiency of only about 15% of heat released. There is no doubt, if we can improve the efficiency of heat engine, can to some extent alleviate the current oil crisis. 2. Air power car using air as an energy carrier, the use of air compressors compressed air to 30MP or more, and then stored in the tank. Need to move their cars when the compressed air released from the drive to start the motor running. Advantage is that no emissions, less maintenance shortcomings is necessary power, air pressure (energy output) with the longer mileage and attenuation, high-pressure gas safety. 3. Flywheel energy storage flywheel inertial energy storage automobile use, storage of non-full load and vehicle engine I can grow downhill, slow down the energy, fed back to a generator on the power, then the drive or speed up the flywheel rotation. Flywheel using magnetic levitation method under high speed rotation in 70000r/min. In the hybrid vehicle as a secondary advantage is to improve energy efficiency, light weight, high energy storage and energy out of reaction speed, low maintenance, long life, disadvantage is the high cost of motor vehicles will be affected by turning the flywheel gyroscopic effect. 4. Super Capacitor Super Capacitor car is the principle of the double-layer capacitors. Bipolar plate in the super capacitor charge under the electric field generated in the electrolyte and the electrode formed at the interface between the opposite charge to balance the electric field within the electrolyte, this positive charge and negative charge between two different phases the contact surface to a very short gap between the positive and negative charges arranged in the opposite position, the charge distribution layer is called the double layer, so the capacitance is very large. (World Expo 2010 Shanghai World Expo Park, Green has been using this car) the advantage of a short charge time, power density, high capacity, long life, maintenance-free, economic, environmental and other shortcoming is that the power output with extended mileage and attenuation by environment and large temperature.
Planning new energy automotive industry
New energy vehicles in the automotive industry development trend, the state has introduced incentives. Present “new energy automotive industry planning” are under development, the state plans to invest 100 billion yuan to encourage new energy vehicles and the development of core components. 2010, 2011 EPS was 0.78 yuan, 0.93 yuan, the current PE is 12 times the corresponding 10-fold. We are optimistic about business prospects for the development company cars, and new energy vehicle development joint venture projects with the automotive industry, the trend is a concern.
New energy automotive batteries
1, new energy, car battery type from the global perspective of the development of new energy vehicles, including its main power supply lithium-ion batteries, nickel hydrogen batteries, fuel cells, lead-acid batteries, super capacitors [1], where lead-acid batteries, super capacitors mostly in the form of auxiliary power sources. Lithium-ion battery market is the most promising one. 2, the dominant types of new energy automotive batteries in February 2009, the Ministry of Finance, Ministry of Science issued a “energy saving and new energy vehicle demonstration and extension of financial subsidies for Interim Measures,” mentions the use of lead-acid batteries and nickel-metal hydride batteries, two types of lithium-ion battery hybrid car subsidies, the maximum subsidy was 80,000 yuan / vehicle and 42 Yuan / car. The June 2010 release of the new energy subsidies to car battery only indicator for determining the subsidies, lead-acid battery was completely negative. Preliminary definition of new energy vehicles, including a project lead-acid batteries, while the explicit subsidies, not including lead-acid batteries power batteries. But also as the main force of the nickel-metal hydride hybrid battery will also be very little subsidy. Visible at the policy level, lithium ion battery and super capacitor to benefit the largest object. 3, the new trend of energy prices on car battery price trend, the current electric vehicle fast charge lithium ion battery prices in the $ 1600/kwh about ordinary lithium ion battery prices in the $ 500/kwh, in accordance with the current U.S. price of gasoline and electricity trend in the car throughout the life cycle, 100km endurance capacity fast charge lithium-ion battery electric vehicles to use performance rather than the cost of gasoline internal combustion engine vehicles 25% higher. Once the electric vehicle battery price dropped to $ 200-300/kwh, electric vehicles and conventional vehicles will be considerable cost. According to forecasts, in the encouragement of national policies, in 2020 the global demand for electric vehicles using lithium-ion close to 50Gwh, fast charge battery cost is expected to decline in 2020 to $ 400-500/kwh, common battery prices could fall to $ 200-300/kwh .